UNIVERSI 

RE 

Professor  Bird  T.  Baldwin,  Ph.  D.,  Editor 


Frori;  the  Iowa  Child  V.elfare  Research  Station. 


er  I 


THE  PHYSICS  GROWTH  OF  CHILDREN 
FROIvl  BIRTH  :T0  MATURITY 


*y 


Bird  T.  Baldwin 


Director  and  Research  Professor 
of  Educational  Psychology 


Published  by  the  University,  Iowa  Cii 


Uc 


measur 


CHAPTER  II 

.'HROFOIETRIC  UfSTEUMBNTS  k  'HODS  OF  BSEASURlHG 

The  international  standardization  of  instruments  $4$,  methods  'fqr  takinr 
rements  on  living  subjects  is  of  paramount  import arid ie5  itf  the  'securing; 
of  comparable  data  for  the  science  of  physical  growth .  -The^  26\raKCh*Ld '■ 

■are  Research  Station  has  established  through  cooperation'  and^ collaboration 
witn  other  scientific  organizations  and  laboratories,  standard  instruments' 
accurate  technique  and  uniformity  of  anthropometric  methods  within  the  fields 
limited  to  child  development.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  Station  there 
has  beer,  close  cooperation  with  some  of  the  leading  anthropometrists  in 

Kj^'/y^W*^  d,ivi3i0n  0f  anthropology  of  the  National  Research 
Council   and  the  United  Hates  National  Museum  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
Washington D.C.  Dr.  f.  Hrdlicka  spent  one  week  at  the  Station  assisting ' 
in  formulating  methods  of  procedure  for  the  anthropometric  work.  It  hasten 
through  his  co-operation  that  the  compasses  and  calipers  have  been  obtained. 
Rie  other  instruments  have  been  made  in  the  University  shops,  under  fhe 
writer's  direction.  The  aim  has  been  to  secure: 

(1)  Instruments  with  accurate  units  of  measure  in  the  metric  syster. 

(2). Light,  convenient,  portable  instruments  of  non- expandable 
material  and  simple  design. 

(3)  Uniformity  in  standards  of  technique  for  measur in  . 

(4)  The  acceptance  of  definite  land-marks  for  determining  measurements. 

1.  Instruments  ' 

ifioa«  Jr™^  faS"rinS  52*1-     This  *»*•  °f   Plane»  "hioh  is  a  mod- 
ification  ortES-piane  of  Broca,  was  originally  suggested  by  the  Committee 
on  Anthropology  of  the  National  Research  Council;  it  has  been  modified 

of  the  Z\$1  ?r-nt6f  by  a  l0°al  Printer'  The  Plane  consists  of  a  strip 

of  the  best  type,  of  inextensible  and  unshrinkable  paper,  one  meter  Ion,  and 

el8  Vo%^  a  *"?   ?«««*•»  ^oad,  with  the  metrfo'difi:^  o^the  fi^ht 
edge  of  the  scale  in  centimeters  and  millimeters,  and  the  Englieh  on  the 
left  edge  in  feet,  inches  and  fifths  of  an  Inckfr  and  with' a  margin  on  each 
n»vl  °  ?  I         /   and  alS°  at  the  *°P  and  hott™-     *>  a«^Pt  w^f  made  to 

ablndonec  :..dStbe  *"  ^  "°"?e  "  **m  ^   *  *™^™»,   ^  this "un^as 
abandoned,  and  the  printed  scale  was  substituted.  Since  the  slues  used 

tbePlinf  V^  a  UtUe  l9S3  than  '5  ™'  in  thiclo,...  and  the  width  of 

the  line  introduces  a  constant  error,  it  was  necessary  to  use  strips  of  thin 

tanc3raLraterr::Vuh:it:p8rate  slues  and  *>  —  -j  ^£^-2" 

The  paper  plane  has  been  used  far    several  months   and  *here  has  bBPn  „» 
appreciate  shrinkage  under  usual  weather  conditions.     t!  chief  advent™™ 

iLul  I     v6/re  tHat   1*   iS  P°rtaWe.  ■*  ^  sent  throurb  the  mail      and  V 
easily  tacked  or  pasted  to  a  wall   or  a  specially  prepared  board       rhTLJ^- 
can  be  standardized,  which  is  not  possible  with  a  rod"  Position 

L.  ^  fi76  ailli*<*er  """  has  been  used  in  place  of  the  one  millimeter 
the *£  "■"*»«'  "°"  be00KeS  a:le  t0  eStinat':   the  »illi»eterS   accurately 

tne         S:  ofS:J,atiSU.lnG  V°  the  6yeS  "*  there  is  -  a<*ded  intere  t'i„ 
the  e5.im».ion  of  each  particular  case   for  measurement.      ?he  paper  plane   in 

605624 


N  DEPC 


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is  a  narrow  strip  5mm.  thick,  in  which  is  cut  an  opening  that  serves  as  a 
handle.  The  square  which  is  used  for  the  three  measurements  just  stated 
above  was  co  structed  in  the  University  Shops. 

c.  The  Bench.   The  bench,  also  constructed  in  the  University  Shops, 
is  used  for  height  sitting.   It  is  made  of  thoroughly  seasoned  walnut.  Two 
sizes  have  been  adoped,  one  50  cm.  in  height  by  30  cm.  square,  the  other 

40  cm.  in  height  by  40-  cm.  s     ,  For  adults,  it  is  recommended  that  a  third 
size,  50  cm.  square  be  used. 

d.  large  Sliding  Calipers.   The  large  sliding  caliper  is  the  Erdlicl 
compass  made  in  Washington  Tor  the  Research  station  and  tester        ureau 
of  Standards.  This  compass  has  also  been  made  by  Collin  in  P^ris.   The 
caliper  consists  of  a  hollow  rod,  70  cm.  long,  2.2cm.  broad  and  0.8  cm.  thiok, 
made  of  well  nickeled  and  welded  brass  strips;  and  of  aluminum  branches, 

26  cm.  long  (in  the  free)  and  3.5  cm.  broad.  It  is  light,  very  serviceable 
durable,  easy-forking,  and  accurate. 

e.  Small  Sliding  Calipers.  The  sliding  caliper  (co.     "issiere) 
made  in  Washington  and  tested  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards.  This  is  the  Collin 
Compass  and  is  accurately  and  well  designed. 

f .  Spreading  Calipers.  The  calipers  in  use  are  the  Hrdlicka  type,  made 
by  Dr.  Ballauf,  Washington,  first  made  by  Collin  in  1912.  The  terminal  parts 
are  in  a  straight  line  at  the  spread  of  10  cm.  There  is  a  guard  on  the 
lower  portion  of  each  branch  8  mm.  from  the  point,  to  regulate  the  distance 

of  introduction  into  the  meatus.  The  resulting  instrument  is  but  imperceptibly 
heavier  than  the  older  standard  compass  of  Kathieu;  it  serves  with  equal 
facility  the  same  purposes. 

g.  Tapes.  On  account  of  the  delay  in  receiving  linen  tapes  from  Paris, 
the  ordinary  millimeter  steel  tape  is  used.  It  has  several  disadvantages,  a 
linen  tape  of  non-elastic  material  being  preferable. 

h.  Scales .  The  scale  in  use  in  the  anthropometric  laboratory  is  the 
Buffalo  type  with  pillar  S'S'1  high,  on  wheels,  beam  being  triple  bar.  On 
one  side: 

Top  bar  is  marked  100  (50  kilo  graduation) 

die  bar  is  marked  50  (5  kilo  graduation) 
Lc      r  is  marked  5  (1/20  kilo  graduation) 
On  other  side: 

Top  bar  is  marked  200  (100  pound  graduation) 

'die  bar  is  marked  100  (10  pound  graduation) 
Lov/er  bar  is  marked  10  (1/10  pound  graduation) 

This  scale  is  accurate,  portable  from  room  to  room  but  heavy  for  trans- 
portation. 

i.  Dynaan  meter .  So  far  the  Smedley  hand  dynomometer  sold  by  Stoelting 
has  been  used,  but  the  Collin  instrument  will  be  substitute'  as  soon  as  it  is 
received  from  abroad.  The  "Martin  Method"  which  uses  the  spring  balance  scales 
is  also  being  tested  out. 

j«  'ffet  Spirometer.  No  spring  spirometer  has  been  found  to  be  accurate. 
The  Stoelting  model  is  used.  This  apparatus  is  too  familiar  to  warrant 
description  here. 


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k.  Measuring  Eoard  for  Infants.  The  accompanying  photograph  shows  a  new 
measuring  scale  for  determining  the  reclining  length  and  reclining  sitting 
height  of  infants.   It  was  designed      e  writer  and  made  in  the  manual 
trainir.       of  the  Univeristy.  The  scale  is  one  meter  in  length,  with  an 
additional  .   centimeters  at  the  one  end.   The  width  is  20.5 

centimeters,  with  standardize  millimeter  scales  on  either  sid  . 

The  vertical  plane  for      eac  rest  is  15  centimeters  at  i      atest  heigl  , 
and  the  eliding  vertical  plane  is  at      -  to  a  brass  roc 
ir.  a  vrass  groove  in  such  a  manner  that  the  millimeter  re 

from  either  side.  The  board  is  made  of  i:  alnut  and  buttottwood  and  the 
standards  on  which  it  rests  when  in  contact  with  the  table,  are  covered  -  ith 
heavy  felt.  The  scale  is  accurate  and  portable. 

2.  Measurements  Taken. 

For  purposes  of  determining  the  physical  development  of  children  from 
birth  to  maturity  the  following  list  of  measurement  has  been  selectee  for  use 
in  the  anthropometric  department  of  the  Research  Laboratory. 

A.  Length 

1 .  Standing 

2.  Sitting 

3.  Span  of  arms 

4#  Upper  arms   (shoulder-elbow) 

5.  Forearm  (elbow-finger  tip) 

6.  Lower  leg 

7.  Face 

B.  Tfidth 

8.  Shoulder 

9.  Hips 

10.  Face 

C.  Diameter. 

11.  Head  (anterior-posterior) 

12.  Head  (transverse) 

13.  Head  (height) 

14.  Chest ; (width) 

15.  chest  (depth) 

D.  Circumference 

16.  Head 

17.  Chest 

E.  Weight 

18.  Body  weight 

F.  Breathing  Capacity 

19.  Lung  capacity  minus  residual  air 

G.  Strength 

20. Strength  of  right  forearm 

21.  Strength  of  left  forearm 

22.  Strength  of  wrist-right  and  left 

23.  Strength  of  elbow-right  and  left 
H.  Indices 

24.  Sitting-standing 

25.  Cephalic-index 
26 •  Chest-index 

27.  vital 

28.  Weight-index 
I.   Cranial  capacity 


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3 .  Methods 
A.  Length 

(1)  Standing  Height.  This  measurement  is  made  "with  the  Research  Station 
Paper  Measuring  Scale  previously  described,  and  the  wooden  square.  The  subject 
stand  straight  with  heels  together,  and  heels,  buttock,  upper  part  of  back 
(and  generally  the  head)  against  the  wall  to  which  the  scale  is  attached.  The 
arms  are  extended  at  the  side  in  a  natural  position  and  the  head  is  in  such  a 
position  that  the  visual  and  biauricular  axes  are  horizontal.  The  square  may 
be  held  in  either  hand.  If  held  in  the  left  hand  the  readings  are  taken  from 
the  right  margin  of  the  plane  and  if  held  in  the  right  hand,  from  the  left 
margin  of  the  plane.  The  square  is  brought  down  firmly  two  or  three  times  in 
succession  on  the  top  of  the  head,  with  sufficient  force  to  feel  the  impact 

of  the  skull,  and  the  reading  taken  from  the  last  position. 

(2)  Sitting  Height.  For  the  measurements  of  the  sitting  height,  the 
Geneva  agreement  has  been  followed  which  recommends:  "The  subject  sits  on  a 
horizontal  and  resisting  seat  (bench)  about  30  to  40  cm.  high  (this  height  being 
proportionate  to  the  stature  of  the  subject):  the  knees  are  flexed;  the  dorsal 
aspect  of  the  trunk  is  to  make  contact  with  the  vertical  plane  or  with  the 
anthropometric  rod  or  plane  at  two  points  viz.,  at  the  sacral  region  and  again 
between  or  at  the  shoulder  blades.  The  axis  of  vision  is  horizontal.  The 
height  of  the  vertex  above  the  surface  of  the  seat  is  to  be  measured. n     (406  p. 
64.) 

(3)  Span  of  Arms.  This  measurement  is  the  distance  from  the  tip  of  the 
middle  finger  (mea"ius)  of  the  left  hand  to  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger  (medius) 
of  the  right  hand  with  maximum  extension  of  the  arms  when  the  subject  is  standing 
in  a  normal  position,  similar  to  the  position  required  for  standing  height, 
against  a  plane  background.  The  child* s  left  middle  finger  touches  a  vertical 
wall  or  moulding  and  the  right  extends  over  the  paper  plane  placed  in  a  horizont- 
al position  at  a  level  with  the  child's  shoulders  with  the  fingers  rigid.  The 
two  arms  are  extended  and  after  the  right  arm  (free  arm)  has  been  raised  in  a 
line  with  the  left  the  observer  applies  the  square  lightly  against  the  free  end 
of  the  middle  finger  of  left  hand  and  reads  the  greatest  distance  recorded, 
noting  that  both  fingers  are  simultaneously  in  contact  7/ith  the  terminal  limits. 

(4)  Upper  Arms.  The  large  sliding  calipers  are  used.  The  elbow  is 
flexed  and  the  terminal  points  are  the  acromion  at  the  shoulder  and  the  extern- 
al condyle  of  the  humerus  at  the  elbow. 

(5)  Forearms.  The  large  sliding  calipers  are  used  to  find  the  distance 
from  the  olecranon  process  of  the  elbow  to  the  finger  tip,  with  the  elbow  flexed 
at  right  angles  in  front  of  the  subject  and  with  palmar  side  up.  This  measure- 
ment varies  with  the  two  arms  and  the  position  of  the  arm.  It  is  being  standard* 
ized  by  Mr.  Howard  R.  Mayberry  of  the  Station. 

(6)  Lower  Leg.  This  measurement  is  from  the  knee  to  the  sole  of  the 
foot  when  the  knee  is  flexed  at  right  angles.  The  measurement  is  made  with 
the  large  sliding  calipers. 

(7)  Face.  The  length  of  the  face  is  taken  with  the  spreading  calipers 
from  the  nasion  (the  mid-point  of  the  naso-frontal  suture)  to  the  lowest 
point  of  the  chin. 


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(8)  Shoulders .  The  large  sliding  calipers  are  used  for  finding 
the  distance  between  the  two  great  prominent  tuberosities  of  the  humerus  bones 
below  the  acromion  processes.  The  arms  hang  down  at  the  subjects  side  and 
the  pressure  of  the  clipers  is  increased  until  the  resistance  of  the  bone  is 
appreciably  felt. 


(9)  Hips.  The  width  of  hips  is  measured  in  a  similar  manner  to  that 
of  the  shoulders  with  the  large  sliding  calipers,  using  the  widest  part  over 
the  trochanters  for  the  two  terminal  points. 


(10)  Face.  The  width  of  the  face  is  taken  with  the  spreading  calipers 
at  the  greatest  bizygomatic  distance. 

C.  Diameter 

The  methods  adopted  here  are  those  of  Hrdlicka  (406) 

(11)  Head  ( anterior-posterior ) 

"The  maximum  glabello-occipital  diameter  of  the  vault." 

Instrument:  The  spreading  compass  or  calipers  (compas  d*epaisseur, 
Broca  or  Hrdlicka). 

"Landmarks;  Anteriorly  —  the  most  prominent  point  of  the  glabella; 
posteriorly  —  the  most  prominent  point  of  the  occiput  as  shown  by  the  maximum 
determinable  spread  of  the  branches  of  the  compass  (Intern.  Agr.) 

"Method:  According  to  older  methods  (see  Bertillion,  Martin),  the  end 
part  of  each  branch  of  the  instrument  was  held  in  one  hand,  as  in  measuring 
the  face.  For  measurement  of  the  head  this  is  somewhat  clumsy.  A  better 
method  is  to  hold  the  compass  so  that  is  butt  (or  joint)  rests  on  the  hypothenar 
eminence  of  the  hand,  the  two  proximal  parts  of  the  branches  reposing  respective- 
ly on  the  ball  of  the  medius  and  on  the  second  joint  of  the  forefinger,  while 
the  thumb  holds  the  instrument  to  the  hand.  The  observer  applies  the  thumb 
and  middle  finger  of  his  left  hand,  in  contact,  to  just  below  the  glabella, 
places  the  free  end  of  the  left  branch  of  the  compass  on  these  fingers  so  that 
the  point  touches  the  glabella,  and  applies  the  left  forefinger  over  the  end. 
This  gives  a  ball-and-socket  arrangement  which  enables  the  measurer  to  hold 
the  point  of  the  left  branch  of  his  compass  steadily  over  the  glabella  without 
fear  of  displacement.  This  btfanch  of  the  instrument  needs  no  further  attention. 
The  right  hand  is  now  moved  around  the  proximal  part  of  the  compass,  so  that 
the  two  branches  rest  on  the  ball  of  the  fourth  and  on  the  second  joint  of  the 
middle  finger  and  are  held  and  controlled  by  the  ball  of  the  thumb  and  the  ball 
of  the  forefinger.  This  hold  permits  not  only  an  easy  handling  of  the  instru- 
ment with  perfect  control,  but  affords  also  a  great  facility  for  regulating 
the  pressure.  The  free  end  of  the  right  branch  is  then  applied  over  and  some- 
what to  one  side  of  the  median  line  of  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  occiput, 
and  is  moved  up  and  down  in  saw-tooth  fashion  from  side  to  side  of  the  occiput 
until  the  maximum  length  is  encountered.  The  eyes  watch  only  the  scale.  The 
ease  of  manipulating  the  instrument  when  handled  in  this  manner  is  very  grat- 
ifying." 

(12)  Head  (transverse) 

"The  greatest  transverse  diameter  in  horizontal  plane  which  can  be  found 
on  the  vamlt  by  the  spreading  compass  (compas  dfepaisseur,  Broca  or  Hrdlicka.) 


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"Landmarks:  Determined  solely  by  the  maximum  breadth  of  the  skull  above 
the  supra-mastoid  and  zygomatic  crests  (intern,  Agr.). 

"Method:  The  instrument  is  held  as  in  first  position  for  measuring  the 
length,  and  this  position  is  retained.  The  left  hand  is  placed  lightly  on 
the  top  of  the  head  of  the  subjeot,  assisting  in  bringing  the  latter  into  the 
convenient  position  for  taking  the  measurement;  the  instrument  is  applied 
horizontally  somewhat  above  what  appears  to  be  the  maximum  breadth,  and  is 
moved  in  a  zigzag  way  antero-posteriorly,  descending  and  again  ascending  by 
zigzags,  until  the  maximum  breadth  is  found.  The  eyes  watch  only  the  scale. 
It  is  necessary  to  repeat  the  movements  in  an  ascending  and  possibly  once  more 
in  a  descending  direction,  until  the  observer  is  positive  that  the  maximum 
breadth  has  been  ascertained." 

(13)  Head  (height) 

"The  height  from  the  middle  of  the  line  connecting  the  floor  of  the  aud- 
itory canals  to  bregma," 

Instrument:  The  spreading  compass  of  Hrdlicka. 

The  methods  adopted  here  are  those  of  Hrdlicka. 

"Method:  The  instrument  is  held  by  the  right  hand  just  below  the  joint. 
The  head  of  the  subject  being  steadied  by  the  left  hand,  one  branch  of  the 
instrument  is  gently  introduced  into  the  left  ear  as  far  as  the  guard  permits, 
and  the  same  is  followed  with  the  right  ear,  the  compass  is  then  slightly  raised 
to  assure  penetration  as  far  as  the  guards , allow,  is  taken  hold  of  a  short 
distance  above  the  scale  by  the  left  hand,  allowed  to  sag  down  by  its  own  weight 
and  held  in  position.  The  ulnar  side  of  the  hand  that  holds  the  compass  should 
for  greater  steadiness  repost  on  the  head  of  the  subject  behind  the  instrument. 
The  scale  of  the  compass  is  now  brought  as  near  as  possible  over  the  bregma, 
The  spread  of  the  branches  of  the  compass  is  noted  on  the  scale,  the  distance 
from  bregma  to  lowest  part  of  the  scale  is  carefully  ascertained  by  the  rod 
of  the  sliding  compass,  and  the  operation  is  completed.  All  that  is  now 
necessary  is  to  read  off  on  a  previously  prepared  scale  the  total  height  from 
the  base  line  of  the  points  of  the  compass  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  scale 
of  the  same  at  the  spread  observed  in  the  subject  at  hand,  and  to  deduct  from 
this  the  distance  between  the  brepia  and  the  scale.  Special  care  must  be 
exercised  that  neither  of  the  branches,  particularly  that  in  the  right  ear, 
slips  out  of  the  meatus. 

"This  method  is  readily  learned  and  causes  the  minimum  of  inconvenience 
to  the  subject  (particularly  if  the  points  of  the  instruments  are  warmed  in 
water  or  by  the  broath  of  the  observer  before  introduction),  and  with  due  care 
it  gives  results  which  vary  within  less  than  3  mm.  The  time  required  is  ecarcely 
more  than  the  average  time  for  ascertaining  the  head  length.  The  external 
portions  of  the  floor  of  the  meatus,  while  not  as  perfect  landmarks  as  could 
be  desired,  give  with  this  method  and  instrument,  in  the  writer's  experience, 
results  that  are  more  satisfactory  than  those  obtained  by  any  other  method 
or  instrument  so  far  devised  for  taking  this  important  measurement  of  the  head. 
The  preference  of  bregma  to  the  vertex  for  the  superior  *point  de  repere', 
is  in  accordance  with  the  Geneva  Agreement,  which  stipulates  two  heights  of 
the  vault  and  both  to  the  bregma," 

(14)  Chest  (width) 

The  methods  adopted  here  are  those  of  Hrdlicka  (406) 

"Transverse  diameter:  Subject  stands  in  natural,  easy,  erect  position. 
The  forearms  are  flexed  at  about  right  angles,  and  the  arms  are  lifted  forward 
and  upward  to  about  30  degrees  from  the  body.  They  are  directed  to  be  held 
limp  without  any  tension,  and  the  examiner  satisfies  himself  that  there  is 


-8- 


no  tension  by  lightly  taking  hold  of  the  forearms  and  moving  the  arms  slightly 
up  and  down.  The  object  of  the  position  is  on  the  one  hand  to  relax  all  the 
thoracic  muscles,  and  on  the  other  to  permit  the  application  of  the  instrument. 
The  same  position  in  every  respect  is  preserved  for  the  antero-posterior  diam- 
eter, 

"The  large  compass  is  now  applied  to  the  chest  in  such  a  way  that  its 
rod  lies  directly  over  the  nipples  (or  corresponding  line  in  women),  the 
fixed  branch  is  pressed  against  the  thorax  until  it  meets  with  the  resistance 
of  the  ribs,  and  the  right  branch  is  applied  repeatedly  to  the  opposite  side 
of  the  thorax,  with  equal  pressure,  during  inspiration  and  expiration  until 
the  medium  between  the  tv/o  can  be  arrived  at.  It  is  the  medium  which  is  record- 
ed. The  instrument  is  held  so  that  its  plane  is  at  right  angles  to  the  vertical 
plane  of  axis  of  the  thorax, 

(15)  Chest  (depth) 

The  antero-posterior  diameter  is  taken  so  that  the  fixed  branch  of  the 
compass  is  applied  to  the  nipple  line,  the  rod  of  the  instrument  to  the  ribs 
on  the  left  side,  and  the  movable  branch  to  the  posterior  part  of  the  thorax, 
the  instrument  being  held  again  at  right  angle  to  the  vertical  axis  of  the 
chest.  Here  also  we  take  repeated  measurements  until  the  medium  between  normal 
inspiration  and  expiration  is  ascertained,  and  this  is  recorded." 

D .  C  ir  cumf  er  enc  e 

(16)  Head,  The  circumference  of  the  head  is  taken  at  the  greatest 
distance  over  the  frontal  and  occipital  processes,  the  tension  of  the  tape 
being  regulated  by  practice  or  by  the  observation  of  the  spring  indicator  on 
the  tape, 

(17)  Chest.  The  circumference  of  the  chest  is  taken,  with  or  without 
clothing,  at  the  nipple  line  for  boys  and  at  ^corresponding  height  for  girls, 

E,  Weight 

(18)  Body  Weight.  The  weight  is  taken  with  or  without  clothing.  When 
clothing  is  included,  the  shoes  and  coats  are  removed.  Clothing  for  children 
below  12  years  of  age  weighs  on  an  average  ,75  kgs,  and  for  children  over  12 
years  of  age  on  an  average  1,1  kgs. 

(19)  Lung  Capacity  Minus  Residual  Air.  The  measurement  has  been  taken 
in  the  usual  manner,  with  conditions  standardized  as  far  as  possible,  using 
the  wet  spirometer,  which  gives  the  volume  of  lung  capacity  minus  the  residual 
air.  Mr,  A.  W.  L,  Bray,  who  began  his  work  at  the  Station  on  January  1st,  1921, 
as  a  Research  Associate  in  Child  Welfare,  will  aim  to  standardize  new  instru- 
ments and  technique.  Waldenburg's  pneumatometer  is  being  tested  out  and  various 
other  methods  of  measuring  respiratory  capacity, 

G,  Strength 

(20-23)  Here  again  the  generally  used  methods  for  the  hand  dynamometers 
have  been  used.  The  writer  has  found  the  "Martin  Method"  (Walter  Reed  General 
Hospital  Monograph  I,  Washington,  D.  C,  pp.  11  ff.)  a  promising  one,  and  the 


-9- 


Kellogg  method  used  at  Battle  Creek  is  also  being  tried  out. 

H.  Indices 

(24-29)  (For  a  theoretical  discussion  of  indices  of  growth,  see  Chapter 
VI.  The  sitting- standing  index  is  determined  by  dividing  the  sitting  height 
by  the  standing  height;  the  cephalic  index  by  finding  the  ratio  of  the  width 
of  the  head  to  the  length;  the  chesT  index  by  dividing  the  depth  of  the  chest 
by  the  width;  the  vital  index  by  dividing  the  breathing  capacity  by  the  height; 
the  weight-height  index  by  dividing  the  weight  in  kilograms  by  the  height  in 
centimeters  or  by  the  square  or  cube  of  the  height • 

I.  Cranial  Capacity 

For  the  present  the  Lee  and  Pearson  (468)  formula  No.  14  is  being  used. 
It  is 

Male.  Brain  oc.  «  .000337  (L-llmm.)  (B-llmm.)  (H-llmm.)  ♦  406.01. 

Female.  Brain  cc.  s  .0004  (L-llmrr.)  (B-llmm.)  (H-ll  mm.)  ♦  206.6 


-10- 


10.  Conclusions 


This  study  of  4800  consecutive  measurements  in  weight  on  200  white  babies 
and  200  colored  babies  approximating  normal  development  shows  that  for  this 
group: 

I.  For  these  infants  at  birth,  the  boys  and  girls  weigh  approximately  the 
same.  The  white  boys  gain  in  weight  more  rapidly  than  the  girls  and  are 
454  grams  to  681  grams  heavier  from  the  second  month  to  the  thirteenth 
month.   The  colored  boys  are  from  284  to  567  grams  heavier  than  the  girls 
between  the  fourth  and  ninth  months,  but  lose  this  advantage  by  the  end  of 
the  year. 

II.  For  this  group  of  infants  the  colored  babies,  both  boys  and  girls, 
weigh  on  an  average  227  grams  less  than  the  white  babies.  This  difference 
becomes  greater  until  at  the  end  of  one  year  the  colored  babies  weigh  from 

454  to  907  grams  less  than  the  white  babies,  both  boys  and  girls. 

III.  As  a  rule,  the  babies  that  are  relatively  heavy  at  birth  are  heavy  at 
the  age  of  four  months,  and  those  that  are  light  at  birth  remain  relatively 
light.  On  an  average,  these  boys  double  their  birth  weight  at  the  end  of 
the  seventh  month,  and  the  girls  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  month. 

IV.  The  coefficients  of  correlation  between  weight  at  birth  and  weight 

in  the  14  to  15  weeks  period  are,  for  white  girls  <f  .537,  for  white  boys  ♦  .263; 
for  colored  girls  ♦  .649,  and  for  colored  boys  +  .584.  This  coefficient 
decreases  as  we  approach  the  34  to  35  week  periods,  until  with  the  end  of 
the  year  there  is  no  positive  correlation  for  this  gropp  of  children.  It 
is  not  possible  to  prophesy  with  a  high  degree  of  assurance  that  if  one  of 
these  children  is  heavy  at  birth,  he  or  she  will  be  relatively  heavy  at 
the  end  of  the  first  year. 

V.  From  60  to  70  per  cent  of  the  babies  who  are  above  the  average  weight 
at  the  beginning  of  the  first  year  are  still  above  average  at  the  end  of 
the  year  and  vice  versa,  with  considerable  individual  variation  within 
these  ranges.  They  vary  a  great  deal  as  to  the  amount  they  are  above  or 
below  during  this  period. 

VI.  These  artificially  fed  babies  as  a  rule  weigh  less  than  the  breast  fed 
babies;  this  is  particularly  noticeable  during  the  first  few  months. 

VII.  The  individual  growth  curves  during  the  first  year  show  a  wide  range 
of  individual  and  racial  differences  at  all  weekly  periods. 

11.  Supplementary  Data  Based  on 
Group  of  Infants  Studied 

1.  The  most  frequent  infant  disease  recorded  for  these  children 

is  diarrhea,  but  this  has  no  serious  noticeable  effect  on  growth  if  checked 
soon  and  no  other  complications  set  in. 

2.  Bronchitis,  constipation,  indigestion,  otitis  media,  coughs,  and 
colds,  retard  growth  if  allowed  to  continue  for  several  weeks. 


-11- 


3.  Pneumonia  is  a  serious  disease  from  the  standpoint  of  growth  for 
these  infants.   It  occurs  more  frequently  with  the  colored  children  than 
with  the  white.  There  are  seven  cases  of  pneumonia  reported  for  the  white 
babies  and  16  for  the  colored  babies. 

4.  The  white  girls  show  50  per  cent  more  illness  recorded  than  the 
white  boys. 

5.  For  this  group  of  children,  digestive  disturbances  are  more  import* 
ant  in  interfering  with  growth  than  are  respiratory  disturbances. 


-12- 


CHAPTER  V 
PHYSICAL  GROWTH  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

*  *  *  * 
Conclusions  (Set  1  and  Set  2) 
1.  Height 

1.  For  boys  and  girls  from  six  to  18  years  of  age  there  is  a  slight 
adolescent  acceleration  in  height,  sitting  height,  weight,  breathing 
capacity  and  the  strength  traits  which  appears  earlier  for  girls  than  for 
boys  and  earlier  for  tall  girls  or  boys  than  for  those  below  the  norms, 

II •  A  series  of  individual  growth  curves  of  varying  heights  approximates 
in  form  a  series  of  concentric  arcs  of  varying  sizes  where  a  chronological 
point  in  the  lower  arcs  is  reached  later  than  a  corresponding  point  in  the 
upper  arcs, 

III*  As  a  rule  tall  boys  and  tall  girls  reach  their  periods  of  maximum 
adolescent  stature  earlier  than  do  short  ones. 

IV.  If  the  increments  of  growth  in  stature  before  adolesoenoe  are 
relatively  uniform  (i.  e,  represented  by  a  straight  line  on(the  charts)  this 
uniformity  of  increase  tends  to  persist  throughout  adolescence.  If  there  is 
retardation  before  adolescence  the  tendency  is  to  show  a  rapid  acceleration 
during  adolescence,  as  a  compensating  factor, 

V.  With  boys  and  girls  the  stature  curves  show  a  railroad  appearance  with 
relatively  little  crossing  but  a  tendency  to  fan  out  at  adolescence, 

VI.  Tall  children  at  any  age  remain  relatively  tall  under  normal  conditions. 
Growth  in  height  is  so  comparatively  uniform  for  each  individual  that  the 
growth  curve  enables  one  to  prophesy  with  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  how  tall 
a  young  child  will  be  at  subsequent  years. 

VII.  Growth  in  height  is  affected  by  the  formation  and  removal  of  adenoids, 

VIII.  Prolonged  disease  history  retards  normal  growth  in  stature, 

2,  Weight 

I.  Growth  curves  in  weight  from  seven  to  17  years  of  age  tend  toward  concavity; 
those  in  height  toward  convexity, 

II •  There  is  more  individual  variation  in  growth  in  weight  than  in  growth 
in  height. 

III.  Pre-adolescent  acceleration  in  growth  of  weight  precedes  as  a  rule  the 
pre-adolescent  acceleration  in  growth  in  height. 


-13- 


IV,  The  pre-adole scent  acceleration  in  growth  in  weight  is  earlier,  chronolog- 
ically, for  the  tall  boys  or  girls  than  for  the  short  ones, 

V.  Growth  in  weight  is  affected  by  disease  history  and  the  growth  and  removal 
of  adenoids. 

3.  Sitting  Height 

I,  The  trend  and  distribution  of  individual  curves  in  sitting  height  are 
almost  identical  with  the  trend  and  distribution  of  the  standing  height  curves 
for  boys  and  for  girls,  more  particularly  for  boys, 

II,  The  conclusions  outlined  on  page  fZ   for  individual  growth  in  stature  apply 
in  general  for  individual  growth  in  sitting  height, 

III.  Growth  in  sitting  height  is  affected  by  disease  and  adenoids,  as  in 
the  case  of  standing  height. 

IV.  Sitting  height  standards  are  more  satisfactory  from  an  anthropometric 
point  of  view  than  those  for  standing  height, 

4.  Chest  Girth 

I.  Chest  girth  for  girls  is  relatively  less  than  for  boys  during  the  pre- 
adolescent  period. 

II.  Cessation  in  growth  of  chest  girth  occurs  earlier  for  girls  than  for  boys. 

III.  Development  of  chest  girth  does  not  parallel  growth  in  stature,  as  do 
the  other  traits  previously  mentioned, 

5.  Breathing  Capacity 

I.  Measurements  of  growth  in  breathing  capacity  involve  a  mental  factor  which 
differentiates  this  measurement  from  those  of  height,  weight,  sitting  height 
and  chest  girth. 

II.  Individual  breathing  capacity  curves,  like  those  for  weight,  tend  toward 
concavity,  which  is  more  marked  in  the  boys'  curves  than  in  the  girls' . 

III.  There  are  marked  individual  variations  in  the  breathing  capacity  curves. 

IV.  Larger  and  taller  children  as  a  rule  have  greater  breathing  capacity 
than  smaller  ones. 

V.  Girls  show  inferior  development  in  breathing  capacity  to  boys. 

VI.  Girls  reach  their  periods  of  cessation  of  growth  before  boys. 


-14- 


VII •  Taller,  heavier  boys  and  girls  as  a  rule  have  their  accelerated  periods 
of  growth  in  breathing  capacity  at  an  earlier  period  than  do  those  below  the 
norms  in  height  and  weight. 

VII •  Retarded  development  in  Btature  and  weight  is  paralleled  by  retarded 
development  in  breathing  oapacity. 

6.  Strength  of  Arms  and  Upper  Back 

I.  Individual  strength  curves  for  arms  and  upper  back  are  similar  in 
irregularity  to  the  breathing  capacity  curves. 

II.  As  in  the  breathing  capacity  curves,  the  element  of  voluntary  effort 
plays  an  important  role  in  evaluating  the  development  of  strength. 

III.  Girls  are  inferior  to  boys  in  all  strength  tests,  girls  showing,  after 
15  years  of  age,  little  increase,  and  frequently  a  decrease  in  strength. 

IV.  The  right  arm  as  a  rule  for  both  boys  and  girls  is  stronger  than  the  left, 
but  the  difference  is  not  so  marked  as  has  usually  been  assumed. 

V.  In  the  distribution  of  strength  curves,  there  is  more  overlapping,  with 
marked  fluctuations  in  increments  of  improvement  or  regression  in  individual 
strength  curves  than  in  the  case  in  curves  of  height,  weight,  breathing  capacity. 
Bitting  height  and  chest  girth. 

VI.  The  observed  correlation  between  individual  stature  and  strength  curves 
is  not  so  evident  as  in  the  other  traits  previously  outlined. 

VII.  Development  in  strength  of  right  arm,  left  arm  and  upper  back  is  mater- 
ially affected  by  prolonged  disease  history. 


-15- 


CHAPTER  VI 
CORRELATIONS  IN  PHYSICAL  GROWTH  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

*  *  *  * 


3,  Conclusions 

I.  Of  the  nineteen  relationships  between  measurements  of  total  growth  from 
the  years  seven  to  17  (in  height,  weight,  and  breathing  capacity)  and  the 
measurements  of  growth  of  parts  (in  sitting  height,  girth  of  chest,  strength 
of  right  arm,  left  arm  and  upper  back)  the  correlation  coefficients  are  higher 
for  boys  than  for  girls.  The  only  exception  is  the  correlation  between  devel- 
opment in  weight  and  girth  of  chest,  where  there  is  involved  a  distinct  anat- 
omical factor. 

II.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  boys  not  only  grow  very  differently  from 
girls,  but  that  their  development  is  decidedly  more  highly  ooir elated  in  its 
varied  aspects.  There  is  a  biological  difference  between  the  growth  of  boys 
and  girls  during  these  ages  from  seven  to  17. 

III.  All  coefficients  are  positive  and  tend  to  be  highest  during  early  adol- 
escence and  lowest  at  17  years  of  age.  The  periods  of  irregular  development 
for  individual  boys  and  girls  are  from  seven  to  10  years  of  age  and  during 
later  adolescence*  There  is  a  wide  range  of  individual  differences  among  the 
boy 3,  but  a  decidedly  less  constant  and  unified  development  among  the  girls. 
The  analysis  and  interpretation  of  the  growth  of  each  series  of  inter-related 
physical  traits  is  shown  by  the  tabulated  and  graphic  distribution,  and  the 
correlation  coefficients  give  a  new  insight  into  the  development  of  the  human 
organism  during  the  plastic  period  from  childhood  through  adolescence. 

IV.  Because  boys  and  girls  show  a  wider  range  of  individual  distribution  and 
because  boys  and  girls  differ  more  in  growth  from  each  other  at  the  adoles- 
cent period,  it  has  been  concluded  that  this  is  a  period  of  irregular  individual 
growth.  The  consecutive  intercorrelations  of  the  various  physical  traits  for 
both  sexes  show  this  to  be  unfounded.  The  coefficients  of  correlation  are 
highest  during  early  adolescence  and  begin  to  decrease  after  14  years  of  age. 

V.  The  correlation  coefficients  expressing  on  the  average  the  physical  devel- 
opment relationship  for  the  period  from  seven  to  17  years  of  age  for  boys  and 
girls  rank  in  the  following  order,  from  highest  to  lowest: 


Height- sitting  height 

Weight- girth,  of  chest 

Strength  of  rigjht  arm-strength  of  left  arm 

Height -weight 

Weight-sitting  height 

Height-breathing  capacity 

Breathing  capacity- sitting  height 

Weight -breathing  capacity 


Eoys 

Girls 

Rank 

Rank 

1 

2 

2 

1 

3 

3 

4 

6 

5 

7 

6 

4 

7 

5 

8 

9 

-16- 


9 

10 

10 

11 

11 

13 

12 

15 

13 

16 

14 

17 

15 

8 

16 

19 

17 

18 

18 

14 

19 

12 

Breathing  capacity- girth  of  chest 

77eight- strength  of  right  arm 

Height-girth  of  chest 

"eight- strength  of  left  arm 

Weight-strength  of  upper  back 

Breathing  capacity- strength  of  right  arm 

Height-strength  of  right  arm 

Breathing  capacity-strength  of  left  arm 

Breathing  capacity-strength  of  upper  back 

Height-strength  of  left  arm 

Height- strength  of  upper  back 

VI.  College  girls  who  have  had  the  benefit  of  physical  training  show  an 
increase  in  correlated  development  in  height  and  breathing  capacity  from  the 
freshman  to  the  senior  year.  This  is  due  in  part  probably  to  the  systematic 
training  and  athletics  in  which  these  girls  participated.  The  coefficients 
are  lower  for  college  girls  than  for  school  girls. 

VII.  Pearson  found  "that  as  far  as  the  correlation  between  weight  and  height 
is  concerned,  men  start  with  a  soaroely  sensible  advantage  over  women  as 
infants  and  conclude  as  adults  with  an  immensely  less  correlation  than  women, 
among  whom  it  appears  to  have  slightly  increased,  or  at  any  rate  not  to  have 
decreased."  These  results  of  consecutive  measurements  for  eight  years  or  more 
give: 

Coefficients  for  seven  year  old  boys  f  .872  and  girls  f  .559. 
Coefficient  for  17  year  old  boys  ♦  .680  and  girls  f  .547. 

The  specific  conclusions  derived  from  the  partial  correlations  are 
outlined  on  pages  137  to  139.  The  general  conclusions  are: 

VIII.  Growth  in  weight  for  boys  and  girls  has  little  effect  on  growth  in 
height  and  sitting  height,  but  does  materially  affect  the  growth  of  girth  of 
chest,  and  also  the  development  of  strength,  especially  for  boys. 

IX.  Growth  in  height  for  boys  and  girls  has  little  effect  on  the  growth 
of  circumference  of  chest,  but  does  materially  affect  growth  in  weight, 
sitting  height  and development  of  strength,  especially  for  the  girls. 

X.  Growth  in  breathing  capacity  has  a  decided  effect  on  the  growth  of  the 
other  traits  except  sitting  height. 

4#  Practical  Applications 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  section  of  the  scientific  Study  to  attampt 
to  indicate  many  practical  applications.  These  will  follow  in  abundance  after 
the  fundamental  principles  of  growth  have  been  formulated  and  studied,  but  a 
few  obvious  educational  corrollaries  may  be  cited  from  the  preceding  basic 
conclusions i 

(1)  Since  girls  and  boys  show  inherent  sex  differences  in  total  and 
partial  growth,  and  in  the  relationships  of  these  at  all  ages  from  seven  to 
18,  girls  should  have  different  forms  of  physical  training  and  different  forms 
of  directed  play  from  boys; 


-17- 


(2)  A  careful  analytic  study  of  the  periods  of  growth  of  boys  and  girls 
should  precede  any  provisions  for  their  physical  education,  and  the  results 

of  such  study  will  throw  light  on  their  development  in  general  motor  coordina- 
tion, and  in  the  mental  traits  which  accompany,  directly  and  indirectly, 
rhythmic  or  .irregular  physical  development; 

(3)  There  should  be  a  graduated  series  of  adjustable  school  desks  in 
accordance  with  the  general  laws  of  physical  development  and  individual 
differences  in  boys  and  girls. 


VARIABILITY  IN  PHYSICAL  GROWTH  OF 
SCHOOL  CHILDREN 


(2)  Conclusions 

I.  For  height  boys  have  a  greater  variability  than  girls  at  all  ages  between 
seven  and  17,  except  at  12  and  17;  at  13  they  are  the  same.  Boys  fluctuate 
more  in  variability  in  height  than  girls. 

II.  For  weight  boys  have  greater  variability  except  at  the  ages  of  nine  to 
13,  inclusive,  and  at  16  and  17.  Girls  also  fluctuate  more  in  variability 
in  weight  than  boys. 

III.  For  breathing  capacity  the  boys  are  more  variable  than  the  girls  at 
all  ages  except  seven,  eight  and  12. 

IV.  The  variability  for  sitting  height  is  greater  for  boys  at  all  ages  except 
at  eight,  12  and  13. 

V.  For  chest  girth,  the  variability  is  the  same  as  for  weight,  the  boys 
being  more  variable  except  from  nine  to  13,  inclusive,  and  at  16  and  17. 

VI.  For  strength  of  right  arm,  the  variation  for  boys  is  greater  for  all 
ages  except  seven,  10  and  11,  and  the  more  variable  ages  for  girls  for  the 
left  arm  are  11  and  12, 

VII •  The  variability  in  strength  of  upper  back  for  boys  is  greater  than  for 
girls,  except  at  the  ages  of  seven  and  nine. 

Vlll.  These  results  show  boys  to  be  more  variable  in  heightjand  weight  than 
Pearson  (576)  found  and  also  Bowditch  (113),  who,  in  turn,  found  them  more  % 
variable  than  did  Boas  and  Wissler  (100). 


G.  Group  II. 

(1)  Data.  In  order  to  find  the  coefficient  of  variability  for  the 
same  children  for  consecutive  years,  a  group  of  115  boys  and  girls  whose 
measurements  were  taken  at  six  years  of  age  and  consecutively  for  six  years 
later,  was  used,  and  another  group  of  138  boys  and  girls  of  nine  or  10  years 


-13- 


of  age,  with  consecutive  measurements  for  six  years.  The  results  in  Table 
XXVTI  show  the  following: 

(2)  Conclusions 

I.  Boys  are  more  variable  than  girls  at  six  years  of  age  and  six  years 
later,  also  at  nine  or  10  and  six  years  later, 

II.  For  weight  the  girls  are  more  variable  at  six  years  of  age  and  six  years 
later;  at  nine  or  10,  the  variability  is  approximately  the  same,  and  six  years 
later  boys  are  more  variable, 

III.  For  breathing  capacity  boys  are  more  variable  at  six  years  of  age  and 
six  years  later,  and  also  at  nine  or  10  and  six  years  later. 

IV.  For  strength  of  right  arm  boys  are  more  variable  at  six  years  of  age 
and  six  years  later,  and  also  at  nine  or  10  and  six  years  later. 

V.  Pearson  also  states  that  "both  sexes  lose  not  only  variability,  but  cor- 
relations as  they  grow  older."  This  statement  is  too  general. 

VI.  Many  of  the  coefficients  of  correlations  increase  with  age,  practically 
all  increasing  from  nine  or  10  to  14  years  of  age,  the  same  holding  true  for 
the  coefficients  of  variability  for  height,  weight,  and  breathing  capacity 
at  13  or  14  for  boys  and  for  girls.  In  the  strength  tests,  the  variations 
decrease  in  general  with  age,  with  a  rise  at  15  years  of  age, 

VII.  For  the  ages  from  nine  or  10  and  six  years  later,  there  is  a  decrease 
in  the  coefficient  of  variation  for  height  and  weight  for  boys  and  girls. 

VIII.  In  breathing  capacity  there  is  an  increase  in  variability  for  both 
boys  and  girls  for  these  ages. 

IX.  In  strength  of  right  arm  there  is  an  increase  invariability  for  boys 
and  a  decrease  for  girls  for  these  ages, 

C,  Group  III. 

(1)  Data.  For  the  group  of  80  college  girls  whose  measurements 
were  followed  throughout  the  four  years  of  college,  the  results  show: 

(2)  Conclusions 

I.  The  results  for  the  eighty  college  girls  from  17  to  21  years  of  age  show 
a  lower  coefficient  of  variation  than  for  girls  from  seven  to  17  years  of 
age,  with  a  slight  drop  from  the  freshman  year  to  the  senior  year. 

II,  The  coefficient  of  variation  for  college  girls  for  weight  is  lov.er  than 
for  the  ages  nine  to  14  years,  but  higher  than  for  15,  16  and  17  years  of 
age. 


-19- 


III.  In  breathing  capacity  there  is  a  gradual  decrease  in  the  coefficient 

of  variation  for  the  college  girls  from  the  freshnan  to  the  senior  year,  and 
a  lower  coefficient  than  for  any  of  the  other  ages  previous  to  17  years. 

IV.  For  strength  of  right  arm,  the  college  girls  show  in  general  a  coefficient 
of  variability  similar  to  the  previous  group  after  15  years  of  age,  the 
sophomore  college  girls  being  almost  as  high  as  the  seven  year  old  girls  of 
the  previous  group. 

8.  Growth  Norms  for  Group  Used  for  Correlations 

a.  Data.   In  order  to  compare  the  group  of  Horace  Mann  boys  and  girls 
whose  correlations  have  been  expressed  in  Tables  XVI  and  XVII  with  larger 
groups  and  with  those  from  other  schools,  the  averages  of  the  individual  for 
the  eight  traits  used  in  the  19  series  of  correlations  from  seven  to  18  years 
of  age  are  expressed  in  Table  XXIX. 

The  yearly  records  include  10,560  yearly  measurements  based  on  semi- 
annual examinations  for  eight  years  or  more  on  the  same  individuals,  or  approx- 
imately 60,000  measurements. 

Standard  Weight-Height-Age  and  Height -Breathing  Capacity-Age  Tables  for 
all  of  the  normal  standard  children  included  in  this  Study  have  been  worked 
out  and  will  be  published  in  the  form  of  a  separate  Table  and  Practical  Score 
Card. 

b«  Conclusions 

These  results  are  typical  for  height,  weight  and  breathing  capacity  and 
almost  identical  v/hen  compared  with  the  previous  norms  for  larger  groups  in 
the  1914  Bulletin  and  the  new  ones  on  page  152.  The  means  for  the  other  five 
traits  are  also  very  similar  to  the  norms  in  the  Supplement.  It  will  be 
noted  that : 

I.  Girls  are  taller  than  the  boys  from  10  to  14  years  of  age. 

II.  Girls  are  heavier  than  boys  from  nine  to  16  years  of  age. 

III.  Girls  are  inferior  to  boys  in  breathing  capacity  for  all  ages. 

IV.  Girls  are  superior  to  boys  in  sitting  height  from  10  to  16  years  of  age. 

V.  Girls  are  superior  to  boys  in  chest  girth  from  12  to  15  years  of  age. 

VI.  Girls  are  inferior  to  boys  in  strength  of  right  and  left  arms  and  upper 
back  at  all  ages. 

VII.  For  normal  children  between  seven  and  17  years  of  age,  these  results 
may  be  considered  as  normal  average  standards. 


,^n 


c.  Applications.  As  normal  standards  these  averages,  their  deviations, 
the  yearly  increments,  the  indices  and  the  annual  percents  of  gain  may  be  used 
for  evaluating  the  growth  of  groups  of  American  children  within  these  age 
limits.  The  norms,  which  are  among  the  highest  in  the  world,  show  what  school 
medical  inspection,  physical  training  and  directed  play  can  do  for  children; 
for  many  of  these  boys  and  girls  were  sickly  or  under-nourished  when  small 
and  several  are  Hebrews,  who  are  racially  of  small  stature  and  small  features. 

9.  Mean  Deviations  in  Growth  of  Correlation 
Groups 

a.  Data.  In  studying  the  comparative  growth  of  a  number  of  individuals 
for  consecutive  chronological  ages,  the  mean  d evi at ions  are  important  on 
account  of  showing  the  distribution  of  individuals  within  the  groups.  The 
mean  deviations  are  shown  in  Table  XXX. 

b.  Conclusions. 

I.  The  girls  show  higher  mean  variations  than  the  boys  at  12  and  13  years  of 
age  in  height,  lower  at  thelother  ages  between  seven  and  18. 

II.  The  mean  variations  for  girls  in  weight  and  sitting  height  are  higher 
for  all  ages  from  eight  to  18  years. 

III.  Girls  also  have  a  higher  mean  variation  in  chest  girth  from  nine  to  17 
years  of  age. 

IV.  Girls  have  a  lower  mean  variation  for  a^.1  ages  in  breathing  capacity. 

V.  Girls  have  lower  mean  variations  in  strength  of  right  arm,  left  arm 
and  upper  back  for  all  ages  from  seven  to  18  years. 

VI.  In  every  trait  except  in  weight  and  chest  girth  the  boys  show  a  wider 
range  of  distribution  for  these  ages. 

VII.  The  greatest  mean  variations  for  both  boys  and  girls  are  during  the  charac- 
teristic adolescent  ages  for  each;  the  smallest  are  during  the  earlier  periods 
from  seven  years  to  nine  years  of  age. 

10 •  Yearly  Increments  of  Growth  of  Group 

a.  Data.  The  actual  annual  increments  of  yearly  growth  are  significant 
for  this  group  as  shown  in  Table  XXXI.  "A  study  of  the  individual  measure- 
ments in  height  reveals  different  correlations  in  growth  for  boys  and  girls 
above  the  median  from  those  below.  That  is,  the  rhythms  of  fluctuations  of 
growth  for  tall  children  differ  materially  from  those  for  short  children.  This 
is  demonstrated  by  the  norms  found,  which  serve  in  this  connection  as  a  tem- 
porary expedient  for  estimating  the  relative  heights  of  the  children  and  as 
a  means  for  dividing  them  into  two  general  groups,  those  lying  on  and  above 
the  median  and  those  lying  below  the  median.  There  are  some  who  cross  the 
median,  and  others  whose  curves  fluctuate  toward  or  from  the  median.  Those 
lying  above  the  median  height  begin  and  end  their  periods  of  acceleration  and 
arrest  earlier  than  those  below  the  median."  For  increment  data  see  former 


-21- 


monograph  (27),  pages  30  to  31.  For  new  norms  for  tall  and  short  girls  see 
table  XXXVI  pages  165  and  166. 

uAs  will  be  noted,  the  results  give  the  greatest  absolute  increment  and 
the  greatest  average  deviations  during  the  adolescent  period,  beginning  at  12 
years  of  age  for  boys  above  the  median  height  and  beginning  at  loj-  years  for 
girls  above  the  median.  This  marked  acceleration  continues  until  15>>~  for 
boys  and  until  13  for  girls.  For  those  below  the  median  height  the  greatest 
average  acceleration  begins  at  14  years  for  boys,  and  at  llj  years  for  girls, 
and  continues,  for  the  boys,  until  17g  and  for  the  girls  until  15-2. 

"The  rhythms  and  fluctuations  of  growth  in  height  for  the  children  above 
the  median  show  that  these  boys  and  girls  mature  in  physiological  growth 
earlier  than  those  below  the  median,  since  their  periods  of  acceleration  and 
arrest  begin  earlier  and  end  earlier.  There  are  individual  measurements 
lying  on  either  side  of  these  medians,  arranged  in  all  probability  in  a  normal 
distribution  from  the  tallest  to  the  shortest  for  each  chronological  age. 
If  this  is  the  case,  as  the  individual  curves  will  show,  we  are  justified  in 
making  averages  or  medians  only  when  the  average  or  norm  is  based  on  the  phy- 
siological age  instead  of  the  chronological  age.  A  new  and  very  important 
educational  problem  is  evoked  here:  How  may  we  formulate  a  measuring  scale 
for  determining  the  physiological  age  of  the  child?  A  careful  study  of 
individual  growth  curves,  based  on  consecutive  measurements,  it  is  hoped, 
will  help  to  answer  this  question."  (27). 

b.  Conclusions. 

I.  In  yearly  increments  of  growth  there  are  not  only  sex  differences,  but  a 
wide  range  of  differences  for  each  trait  at  various  ages. 

II.  The  increments  are  higher  in  the  case  of  girls  than  of  boys  as  follows: 
from  nine  to  13  years  of  age  for  weight;  from  11  to  13  years  of  age  for  breath- 
ing capacity;  from  eight  to  13  years  of  age  for  sitting  height;  from  eight  to 
13  years  of  age  for  chest  girth;  from  eight  to  13  years  of  age  for  strength 

of  left  arm.  They  are  inferior  at  all  other  ages  for  all  traits  and  for  these 
ages  (eight  to  13)  for  strength  of  right  arm  and  upper  back. 

11.  Yearly  Per  Cent  of  Gain  from  Seven  to  14 
Years  of  Age 

This  table  is  significant  in  that  it  shows  the  annual  increase  in 
increment  in  growth  for  the  eight  physical  traits  under  consideration. 
The  yearly  gains  in  per  cent  can  be  best  gleaned  from  Table  XXXII.  It  should 
be  noted  that 

I,  For  growth  in  height  the  yearly  increment  of  per  cent  is  very  uniform  for 
boys  from  seven  to  16,  with  a  short  rise  from  13  to  13  years  of  age;  for  girls 
from  seven  to  13  the  yearly  increment  of  per  cent  is  very  uniform,  with  the 
rise  from  12  to  13  and  a  cessation  after  this  age. 

II.  For  growth  in  weight  there  is  a  higher  percentage  increment  for  all  ages 
up  to  13  years  for  boys,  with  more  irregularity  than  for  the  previous  traits 
outlined,  and  with  the  peak  of  increase  between  12  and  13. 


III.  For  breathing  capacity  the  percentage  increase  is  a  little  higher  and 
more  irregular  than  for  height.  The  girls  are  higher  than  the  boys  until  13 
years  with  no  definite  peak  period. 

IV.  The  lowest  annual  increase  in  per  cent  is  in  sitting  height  for  boys  and 
girls,  and  the  highest  in  strength  of  upper  back.  This  is  also  shown  graph- 
ically in  the  profile  charts,  pages  111,  112,  113  and  114.  For  sitting  height 
the  annual  per  cent  of  gain  is  lower  for  the  boys  than  for  girls  until  12 
years  of  age. 

V.  Growth  in  chest  girth,  which  is  also  lower  for  boys  until  14  years  of 
age,  is  also  small  and  more  variable  than  for  sitting  height. 

VI.  and  VII.  For  strength  of  the  arms  the  annual  increase  is  a  little  higher 
than  for  the  previous  traits,  with  variations  for  the  two  arms  and  for  boys 
and  girls,  the  boys  increasing  more  on  the  average  than  the  girls. 

VIII.  For  upper  back  there  is  a  greater  annual  increase  than  for  other  traits, 
but  there  is  so  much  variation  that  no  definite  age  stands  out  prominently, 
the  boys  growing  more  on  the  average  than  the  girls. 

12.  Indices  of  Growth  of  Group  in  Table  XXIX. 

a.  Data.  As  previously  emphasized,  the  relationship  between  the  growth 
of  two  physical  traits  which  may  be  expressed  as  an  index,  is  more  significant 
than  is  the  growth  of  either.  The  importance  of  the  index  or  coefficient  of 
robustness  (the  weight-height  coefficient)  is  outlined  in  Part  IV  and  this 
index  should  form  the  normal  standard  of  growth  in  place  of  either  height  or 
weight.  Table  XXXIII  gives  the  average  indices  of  all  ages  and  for  each  sex. 
There  is  little  or  no  apparent  difference,  as  a  rule,  between  the  tall  boys 
and  the  short  boys,  except  that  the  tall  individuals  have  high  indices  early. 
This  clearly  substantiates  the  important  conclusions  previously  stated  that 
the  development  of  any  normal  physiological  change  in  the  traits  measured 
occurs  earlier  for  tall  children.  For  data  see  Figs.  1  to  29  and  pages  30 

to  71  in  the  earlier  monograph  (27). 

That  the  weight -height  indices  vary  with  different  nationalities  can 
be  demonstrated  by  selecting  weight  and  height  tables  from  Part  V.  Take  for 
example  Erismann,  Baldwin,  Pagliani,  Bobbitt  and  Misawa,  From  eight  to  15 
years  of  age  the  indices  for  the  Russians  increase  for  the  boys  from  .201 
to  .361;  for  the  Americans  from  .196  to  .306;  for  the  Italians  from  ,175 
to  .275;  for  the  Filipinos  from  .174  to  .268;  and  for  the  Japaneses  from  .168 
to  .265.  That  is,  the  Russians  and  Americans  are  heavier  for  their  stature 
than  are  the  other  nationalities  represented. 

b.  Conclusions 

(l)  Weight -Height  Index 

I.  The  weight-height  index  is  the  most  practical  criterion  of  normal  growth 
in  robustness,  and,  other  conditions  being  normal,  in  general  nutrition. 


-23- 


II •  The  weight-height  indices  increase  from  six  to  18  years  of  age  on  the 
average  100  per  cent,  which  shows  that  weight  increases  more  proportionately 
than  height. 

III«  A  we 11 -developed  tall  or  short  child  approaches  within  15  per  cent  of  the 
weight-height  index  for  the  chronological  age  to  which  the  child* s  height 
corresponds • 

IV.  For  tall  boys  and  tall  girls  the  coefficient  for  the  weight-height  is 
in  advance  chronologically  of  that  for  the  mean  or  average  and  the  reverse 
holds  true  for  short  children.  The  tall  heavy  children  are  older  physically, 

V.  In  interpreting  and  evaluating  the  seven  series  of  indices  for  each  age 
for  each  sex,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  weight-height  indices  for  girls 
are  higher  at  all  ages,  which  means  the  girls  are  proportionally  heavier  for 
their  height  than  boys. 

(2)  Vital-Height  Index 

I,  The  vital -height  index  is  a  good  criterion  of  the  respiratory  height  re- 
lationship. 

II •  The  vital -height  index  more  than  doubles  for  boys  during  the  ages  from 
six  to  18  years  and  nearly  doubles  for  girls,  which  shows  that  in  growth  in 
breathing  capacity  boys  increase  proportionately  more  than  in  growth  in 
height, 

III.  The  vital -height  index  is  higher  for  the  boys  than  for  the  girls  at  all 
ages,  which  shows  that  boys  have  greater  breathing  capacity  for  their  heights 
than  girls, 

IV.  A  well  developed  tall  or  short  child  should  approach  within  15  per  cent 
of  the  vital -height  index  for  the  chronological  age  to  which  the  child's 
height  corresponds. 

V.  For  tall  boys  and  tall  girls  the  coefficient  for  the  vital-height  is  in 
advance  chronologically  of  that  for  the  mean  or  average  and  the  reverse  holds 
true  for  short  children. 

fo)  Pl.'rl-i"£*TT|J^''  T'"1"^ 

(3)  Sitting  Height-Height  Index 

I.  The  sitting  height  indices  for  boys  and  girls  show  on  the  average  a  slight 
decrease  from  six  to  16  years  of  age,  and  for  boys  from  six  to  13  years  of 
age,  which  shows  that  standing  height  is  increasing  more  proportionately  at 
these  ages  than  height-sitting. 

II,  Girls  maintain  a  relatively  higher  sitting  height-height  relationship 
than  boys. 

(4)  Chest  Girth-Height  Index 

I.  Chest  girth-height  indices  change  little  from  seven  to  13  years  of  age, 
with  a  slight  drop  for  ages  from  11  to  15. 


-24- 


II.  Girls  have  a  slightly  higher  index  than  boys.  After  13  the  index  is 
considerably  higher  for  girls. 

(5)  Strength  of  Right  Arm-Height  Index 

I.  The  strength  of  right  arm-height  indices  increase  on  the  average  steadily 
from  six  to  18  years  to  more  than  100  per  cent  for  boys  and  approximately 

100  per  cent  for  girls,  which  shows  that  the  strength  of  the  right  arm  increases 
more  proportionately  than  the  stature. 

II.  In  the  strength-height  relationships  for  right  arm  the  boys  are  invariably 
superior. 

(6)  Strength  of  Left  Arm-Height  Index 

I.  The  strength  of  left  arm-height  indices  increase  on  the  average  steadily 
from  six  to  18  years  to  more  than  100  per  cent  for  boys  and  approximately  100 
per  cent  for  girls,  which  shows  that  the  strength  of  the  left  arm  increases 
more  proportionately  than  the  stature. 

II.  The  indices  for  the  left  arm  are  uniformly  lower  with  this  group  of 
children  than  those  for  the  right. 

III.  In  the  strength-height  relationships  for  left  arm  the  boys  are  invariably 
superior. 

(7)  Strength  of  Upper  Back-Height  Index 

I.  The  indices  for  growth  of  strength  in  upper  back  increase  more  from  six 

to  18  than  any  of  the  other  indices.  For  the  boys  this  increase  is  nearly  300 
per  cent, for  the  girls  about  250  per  cent. 

II.  Eoys  increase  most  during  the  ages  from  14  to  18  and  girls  increase  least 
after  15  years  of  age. 

III.  In  the  strength-height  relationships  for  upper  back  the  boys  are  invar- 
iably superior. 

13.  Per  Cent  of  Inorease  Between  Seven,  12,  and 
17  Years  of  Age 

a.  Data.  What  per  cent  of  a  boy* s  or  girl's  growth  at  17  years  of  age 
has  he  or  she  reached  at  seven  years  of  age,  and  at  12  years  of  age?  Do 
boys  and  girls  grow  more  between  seven  and  12  years  of  age  or  between  12  and 
17  years  of  age?  These  are  very  important  questions  from  many  standpoints 
for  individuals  and  the  problems  are  analyzed  further  by  a  study  of  individual 
growth  curves.  The  averages  as  given  in  Table  XXXIV  and  XXXV  will  answer 

the  question  in  a  general  way  and  will  show  the  group  tendencies. 

b.  Conclusions 

I.  Girls  have  completed  at  seven  years  of  age  on  the  average  in  each  of  the 
eight  physical  traits:  height,  weight,  breathing  capacity,  sitting  height, 
girth  of  chest,  strength  of  right  arm,  strength  of  left  arm,  and  strength 
of  upper  back,  a  higher  per  cent  of  their  final  development  (at  17)  than  have 

boys. 


-25- 


Table  XXXIV 

PER  CENT  OF  INCREASE  BETWEEN  SEVEN,  12  AND  17  YEARS 

OF  AGE 

Traits 

At  12 

At  17 

Bet. 

Bet. 

yrs. 
121 

yrs. 
i"£2^  ~" " 

135 

7  &  12 

T^  ~  - 

21 

12  &  17 

EeigKt 

Boys 
Girls 

14 

,v  eight 

Boys 
Girls 

155 
167 

259 
245 

55 
67 

104 
78 

Breathing  Capacity 

Boys 
Girls 

168 
174 

214 
254 

68 
74 

146 
80 

Sitting  Height 

Boys 
Girls 

113 
115 

134 
130 

13 
15 

21 
15 

Girth  of  Chest 

Boys 
Girls 

116 
121 

146 
141 

16 

21 

30 
20 

Strength  of  Right  Arm   Boys 

Girls 

189 
196 

360 
287 

89 
96 

171 
91 

Strength  of  Left  Arm    Boys 

Girls 

182 
207 

339 
297 

82 
107 

157 
90 

Strength  of  Upper  Back  Boys 

Girls 

236 
231 

502 
354 

136 
131 

266 
123 

-26- 


Table  XXXV 


PER  CENT  OF  FINAL  GROWTH  AT  17  YEARS  OF  AGE  THAT  HAS  BEEN 
ATTAINED  AT  SEVEN  AND  12  YEARS  OF  AGE 


Traits 

At  1 7 

At  12 

Bet. 

Bet. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

7  &  12 

12  &  17 

" 

yrs.      yrs. 

1 

-     — 

Height 

Boys 

70.  Z% 

83. 8# 

13.5JC 

16. 2$ 

Girls 

74.2 

90. 

15.8 

10. 

Weight 

Boys 

38.7 

60.1 

21.4 

39.9 

Girls 

40.9 

68.2 

27.3 

31.8 

Breathing  Capacity 

Boys 

31.9 

53.7 

21.8 

46.3 

Girls 

39.3 

68.3 

29. 

31.7 

Sitting  Height 
Girth  of  Chest 


Boys 
Girls 

Boys 
Girls 


Strength  of  Right  Arm    Boys 

Girls 


Strength  of  Left  Arm 


Boys 
Girls 


Strength  of  Uppers  Back  Boys 

Girls 


74.5 
77. 

68.6 
70.8 

27.8 
34.9 

29.5 
33.7 

19.9 
28.3 


84.5 
88.6 

79.7 

85.5 

52.5 
68.4 

53.7 
69.9 

47.1 
65.3 


10. 
11.6 

11.1 
14.7 

27.4 
33.5 

24.2 
36.2 

27.2 
37. 


15.5 
11.4 

20.3 
14.5 

47.5 
31.6. 

46.3 
30.1 

52.9 
34.7 


"7 


r 


Sitting  Height 

to 
Standing  Height 


Boys 
Girls 


7  yrs. 
54.3^ 
54.7 


12  yrs 


51. 6% 
51.9 


17  yrs. 
51.2% 
52.8 


-27- 


II.  Girls  gain  between  seven  and  12  years  of  age  a  greater  percent  of  their 
final  growth  (at  17)  than  do  boys,  in  all  of  the  eight  traits:  height,  weight, 
breathing  capacity,  sitting  height,  girth  of  chest,  strength  of  right  arm, 
strength  of  left  ami,  and  strength  of  upper  back. 

III.  From  12  to  17  years  of  age,  girls  gain  a  higher  per  cent  than  boys  in 
sitting  height,  chest  girth,  strength  of  right  arm,  left  arm  and  upper  back. 

IV.  Boys  and  girls  both  gain  a  higher  per  cent  from  12  to  17  years  of  age 
in  the  other  traits  of  weight  and  breathing  capacity. 

V.  The  girls  at  seven  years  of  age  have  reached  a  stage  of  development 
considerably  in  advance  of  that  of  boys,  and  girls  continue  this  lead  in 
all  phases  of  growth,  so  that  a  12  year  old  girl  is  as  far  advanced  toward 
her  final  growth  at  17  as  a  14  year  old  boy. 

VI.  The  direct  per  cent  of  sitting  height  to  standing  height  at  seven,  12, 
and  17  is  almost  identical  for  boys  and  girls.  The  ratio  is  approximately 
1-2  being  slightly  below  this  at  seven  years  of  age. 

VII.  Girls  grow  more  proportionally  than  boys  from  seven  to  12  years  of 
age  in  height,  weight,  breathing  capacity,  sitting  height,  girth  of  chest, 
strength  of  right  arm,  strength  of  left  arm.  Boys  gain  slightly  more  in 
strength  of  upper  back. 

VIII.  Boys  grow  more  proportionally  than  girls  from  12  to  17  years  of  age 
in  height,  weight,  breathing  capacity,  sitting  height,  girth  of  chest, 
strength  of  right  arm,  strength  of  left  arm  and  strength  of  upper  back. 


14.  Norms  for  Tall  and  Short  Girls 

These  norms  for  girls  above  or  below  median  height  show  that  on  an 
average  the  tall  girls  surpass  the  short  girls  in  all  of  the  eight  physical 
traits  outlined.  They  also  show  that  tall  girls  grow  differently  than 
short  girls.  These  norms  supplement  those  on  page  152  but  include  more 
oases. 


CHAPTER  VII 
ANATOMICAL  AGE 

1.  The  Anatomical  Development  of  Boys  and  Girls 

Two  closely  related  ages  which  characterize  a  child* s  development  (juite 
as  much  as  its  chronological  age  in  years,  months  and  days,  but  are  less 
understood,  less  commonly  used,  and  therefore  less  familiar  to  parents  and 
teachers,  are  the  anatomical  and  physiological  age.  These  denote  the  physical, 
or  anatomical,  growth  and  the  accompanying  stages  of  physical  maturation  of 
the  individual  as  indicated  by  growth  of  bones,  eruption  of  teeth,  color 
of  eyes,  metabolism,  marked  functional  changes  in  sex  organs,  changes  of  voice 
and  many  other  phases  of  physiological  development  not  so  apparent  to  the 
casual  observer. 


-28- 


Children  of  the  sane  chronological  age  may  vary  greatly  in  their  anatom- 
ical and  physiological  development.  Since  physical  growth  in  the  larger 
sense  conditions  all  other  aspects  of  development,  it  is  essential  that  these 
ages  be  discussed  in  detail.  Few  scientists  have  attempted  to  differentiate 
between  these  two  ages,  but  this  is  essential  if  a  careful  study  is  to  be 
made  of  the  development  of  childhood.  An  analysis  of  the  anatomical  growth 
dt   the  carpal  bones  (the  wrist)  will  be  made,  a  diagnosis  of  the  physiolog- 
ical age  at  adolescence  will  be  outlined  empirically,  and  some  specific 
correlations  between  the  two  ages  with  applications  will  follow. 

a.  Roentgenograms  as  Criteria  of  Anatomical  Age.  In  order  to  throw 
more  light  on  the  previous"~aata  on  physical  growth,  the  writer  made  a  com- 
parative study  of  the  carpal  bones  of  a  group  of  boys  between  the  ages  of  11 
and  13  and  a  group  of  girls  between  the  ages  of  10  and  13,  the  growth  being 
followed  for  three  years.  These  children  from  the  seventh  school  grade  of 
the  University  of  Iowa  Junior  High  School,  are  as  nearly  as  could  be  deter- 
mined in  a  preliminary  way,  normal  children  from  good,  representative  homes, 
with  normal  school  progress,  as  indicated  by  school  grades,  school  marks, 
and  a  series  of  mental  examinations  for  the  three  consecutive  years.  The 
analyses  give  a  good  insight  into  the  physical  status  of  these  young  adoles- 
cents, since  the  ossification  of  the  bones  of  the  wrist  is  representative 
of  the  skeletal  development  in  general. 

The  roentgenographs  included  in  this  investigation  were  taken  in  the 
Department  of  Roentgenology  of  the  University  College  of  Medicine  by  Dr. 
Bundy  Allen.  One  series  was  taken  in  1918  just  before  the  writer  was  called 
into  the  U.  S.  Army,  and  another  series  on  the  same  individuals  after  his 
return,  and  a  third  series  in  October,  1920.  The  roentgenograms  were  of  the 
exact  natural  size  and  the  two  hands  were  placed  in  a  uniform  position  a s 
far  as  possible.  The  individual  differences  in  the  forms  and  positions  of 
the  carpal  bones  and  the  difficulty  of  differentiating  between  various  stages 
as  the  cartilaginous  tissue  develops  into  osseous  substance  present  distinct 
problems  in  determining  the  topographical  area  of  the  bones. 

b.  Method  of  Finding  the  Area  of  the  Bones  of  the  Ifrist.  At  first 
attempts  were  made  to  measure  the  perimeter  of  the  individual"  bones  by  means 
of  a  map  tracer  and  protractors.  This  method  was  soon  discarded  and  a  method 
of  tracing  the  outlines  on  millimeter  cross  section  paper  through  an  illum- 
inated frosted  gladd  plate  was  tried  and  also  discarded.  The  tables  in  this 
section  of  the  Study  give  the  measurements  as  found  by  means  of  the  planimeter 
with  which  the  area  of  surfaces  of  irregular  outline  can  be  determined  with 
accuracy.  The  accompanying  photograph  (12)  shows  the  development  at  the 
beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  two  year  intervalfof  one  boy,  No.  8376  (John). 
In  1918  the  total  exposed  area  of  the  seven  bones  was  1110  sq.  rams,  and  just 
two  years  later,  1920,  the  total  area  was  1832  sq.  rams.  In  this  case  there 
was  marked  growth  in  the  area  of  each  borte  and  in  the  total  area  also  because 
of  the  appearance  of  the  pisiform  (116  sq.  mms.)  after  the  two  year  period. 

All  original  X-ray  photographs  have  been  reduced  in  these  exits  from 
natural  size  by  means  of  a  uniform  scale  which  makes  the  photographs  of 
this  Study  comparable. 


-29- 


Further  examples  of  the  differences  in  the  development  of  the  wrist 
bones  at  various  ages  are  contained  in  a  series  of  comparative  observations 
on  No.  8370  and  No.  8376  for  the  year  1918  showing  that  in  physical  growth 
No,  8376  (John)  is  advanced,  being  both  taller  and  heavier;  in  the  anatom- 
ical development  of  the  seven  observable  bones  of  the  wrist  No.  8376  has 
a  larger  projected  surface  area  for  bones separately  and  for  all  of  the  bones 
collectively.  The  same  differences  are  observable  in  the  photographs  for 
1920;  in  physiological  development  No.  8376  (John)  was  post-pubescent  in 
1918  and  No.  8370  (Eldon)  pre-pubescent;  in  chronological  age  No.  8376 
(John)  is  six  months  younger  than  No.  8370  (Eldon).  These  data  demonstrate 
that  No.  8376  (John)  is  the  older  boy  anatomically,  although  chronologic- 
ally six  months  the  younger. 

c.  Conclusions. 

I.  The  size  and  number  of  the  carpal  bones  increase  with  age  during 
childhood. 

II.  The  development  of  the  two  wrists  varies  with  individuals,  but 
on  the  average  there  is  no  difference. 

III.  Girls  at  a  given  chronological  age  have  a  larger  exposed  surface 
area  of  the  carpal  bones  of  the  wrist  than  have  boys. 

IV.  Another  evidence  of  the  accelerated  anatomical  development  of 
girls  over  boys  is  shown  in  the  presence  and  development  of  the 
pisiform  bone,  which  appears  earlier  during  the  pre-adolescent 
age  .with  girls  than  with  boys. 

V.  There  is  a  high  coefficient  of  correlation  between  height  and 
area  of  the  carpal  bones  (Boys  f  .879,  Girls  |  #729)  and  also 
between  weight  and  area  of  the  carpal  bones  (Boys  +  .755,  Girls 
*  .766.) 

VI.  Boys  have  a  higher  correlation  than  girls  for  height  and  area  of 
carpal  bones  and  about  the  same  as  girls  for  weight  and  area  of 
the  carpal  bones. 

VII.  The  coefficient  of  variation  of  the  carpal  bones  is  higher  for 
boys  than  for  girls  (Boys  29.94,  Girls  12.695). 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PHYSIOLOGICAL  AGE 

1*  The  Age  Distribution  of  Pubescence  of  Boys  and 
Physiological  Maturation  of  Girls 

The  subjects  of  physiological  and  anatomical  ages  have  been  con- 
fused in  the  literature,  because  neither  has  been  investigated  empirically 
beyond  a  limited  degree,  although  both  are  full  of  fertile  problems  of 
great  significance  in  the  study  of  individual  development.  The  direct 
applications  of  the  meaning  of  these  ages  to  physical,  mental, pedagogical, 
social  and  moral  development  have  been  recognized  to  a  very  limited  extent. 

There  is  a  wide  range  to  be  found  in  the  physiological  differences 
between  boys  and  girls  of  the  same  chronological  age,  as  will  be  demonstrated 
by  the  data  following.   Some  boys  reach  pubescence  at  11  years  of  age,  others 
not  until  16  years  of  age;  some  girls  reach  this  period  of  maturity  at  10 


-30- 


year  s  of  age  or  earlier,  others  not  until  16  or  17.  Boys  and  girls  who 
mature  early  in  these  functions  may  be  considered  physically  older  than 
those  of  later  maturation, 

a.  Data  for  Boys*     In  order  to  determine  the  wide  range  of  chrono- 
logical ages  that   characterize  the  stages  of  physiological  growth  which 

are  entered  into  at  adolescence,   the  writer  and  one  of  his  advanced  students 
at  Johns  Hopkins   University,   Charles  F.   Pennington,    checked  very  carefully 
some  material  that  was   gathered  under  the  direction  of  $r.  William  Burdick 
and  Dr.  Brown  on  the  ages  of  pre-pubescence,   pubescence,  and  post-pubescence 
in  boys.      (28)      In  Baltimore  3600  boys   of  a   "motor"  type  of  development, 
that  is,  those  taking  part   in  athletics,  were  examined.     These  data  were 
supplemented  by  those  from  a  group  of  1317  boys  from  14  counties   of  Mary- 
land, making  a  total  of  4917  boys.     With  these  particular  children  the 
criterion  was  that   of  pubescent   growth  and  pigmentation  of  fine  hair, 
which  characterizes  a  very  brief  period  of  time  marking  the  change  from 
asexual  to  sexual  life,  when  the  ability  to  procreate  is  established. 

It   is  found  that  the  pre-pubescent  boys  range  from  eight  and  one- 
half  to  16  years  of  age  in  the   group  of  country  boys,   and  from  nine  and  one- 
half  to  17^  for  the  city  boys.     The  post-pubescent  ages  range  from  llj-  to 
24  for  the  country  boys  and  12-|  to  24  for  the  city  boys.     For  the  pubescent 
stages  the  country  boys  range  from  nine  and  one-half  to  15-J-,  with  the  mode 
at   13|,  and  the  city  boys  from  10  to  18,  with  the  mode  at  14..    The  country 
boys  reach  this  period  earlier  than  the  city  boys.     At  no  age  are  more  than 
53  per   cent  of  the  age  group  of  the  city  boys  pubescent  or  more  than  40 
per  cent   of  the  country  boys. 

A  method  is  now  being  formulated  and  carried  out  by  the  writer 
with  the  University  of  I ona  Junior  High  School  boys,  which  indicates  that 
pubescence  is  but  a  rough  and  inadequate  criterion  of  the  secretion  of  the 
sperm  cell. 

b.  Data  for  Girls.     For  the  girls  the  criteria  were  the  first 
menstrual  flow,   enlargement  of  the  breasts,   the  appearance  of  sub-cutaneous 
fat,   and  axillary  hair,  as  noted  by  the  physician  or  nurse.     Chart  LV  shows 
the  age  distribution  in  terms  of  per  cent  of  47  girls  from  the  University 
of  Iowa  Elementary  and  High  School  who  had  their  first  period  of  menstrua- 
tion between  the  ages  of  10  and  17  years;  and  a  similar  distribution  for 
151  Horace  iwann  school  girls,   56  University  of  Chicago  Elementary  and  High 
School   girls  and  134  Baltimore  County  girls   from  the  Baltimore  Athletic 
League.     These  data  are  accurate  and  represent  typical   groups  of  normal 
girls  from  the  middle  and  upper  class  homes. 

These  data  furnish  satisfactory  criteria  for  specific  purposes,  but 
other  types   of  criteria  are  being  worked  out  at  the  present  time  by  the 
writer. 


c.     Conclusions 


I. 


These  data  show  that  among  children  who  are  best  developed  from  a 
physical  point  of  view,  there  is  no  fixed  age  for  physiological 
development  as  evidenced  by  the  advent  of  pubescence  or  first 
menstruation.  Adolescence  does  not  begin  at  the  sane  chronological 
age  for  all  normal  boys  or  for  all  normal  girls,  physiologically 


-31- 


TABLE  XLI 


PERCEIITAGE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PHYSIOLGSECAL  MATURATION  —  GIRLS 


1.     University  of  Iowa  Elementary  and  High  School  Girls 


Ages         Cases 

Per  Cent 

Median 

11           4 

8.51 

13  years 

12            9 

19.14 

7  months 

13           18 

38.29 

14           10 

21.27 

15'           6 

12.76 

47 

99.97 

2.  Horace  Aiann  Elementary  and 

High  School  Girls 

Ages        Cases 

Per  Cent 

Median 

11          7 

4.63 

13  years 

12          25 

16.55 

9  months 

13          56 

37.08 

14          42 

27.81 

15          17 

11.25 

16           4 

2.64 

151 

99.96 

3.  University  of  Chicago  Elementary 

and  High  School 

Girls 

Ages        Cases 

Per  Cent 

Lledian 

11           3 

5.35 

13  years 

12           9 

16.06 

9  months 

13          22 

39.28 

14          14 

25.00 

15           6 

10.71 

16           2 

3.57 

56 

99.97 

4,  Baltimore  County  Girls, 

Maryland 

Ages        Cases 

Per  Cent 

Median 

10          3 

2.23 

13  years 

11         10 

7.46 

8  months 

12         27 

20.14 

13          40 

29.84 

14          36 

26.85 

15          13 

9.70 

16          5 

3.72 

134 

99.94 

-32- 


speaking.  Children,  boys  or  girls,  may  be  of  the  same  chronological  age 
between  10^  and  l&g   and  differ  in  physiological  age  from  one  to  four  or  five 
years  and  still  be  normal  in  physical  development.  The  norm  for  pubescence 
is  is  a  distribution  range,  not  an  average  chronological  age. 

II.  At  no  age  do  as  many  as  40  per  cent  of  the  groups  mature. 

III.  There  is  a  range  in  ages  from  10  to  17  years  for  the  age  of  first 
menstruation  for  normal  girls. 

IV.  The  girls  from  the  country  and  from  the  smaller  city  (11,000  population) 
mature  earlier  than  those  from  Chicago  and  New  York,  the  median  ages  being 
respectively  13  years  eight  months,  13  years  seven  months,  13  years  nine 
months.  This  conclusion  substantiates  the  similar  condition  found  for  boys 
28  p.  15). 

* 
2.  Relation  of  Establishment  of  Itiaturity  to  Height 

of  Girls 

a.     Data.        In  order  to  find  the  correlation  from  another  angle 
between  physical  grov/th  and  the  date  of  maturity  (first  menstruation) 
of  girls,   151  Horace  iv^nn  girls  and  53  University  of  Chicago  high  school 
.girls  between  11  and  17  years   of  age  were  taken,   with  the  heights   recorded 
at  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  this  physiological  function. 

It  was  found  for  the  Horace  Mann  School,   Columbia,  that  the  seven 
girls  who  matured  at  11  years   of  age  had  an  average  height  of  148.2  cm., 
with  the  average  or  norm  for  the  school  at  140.39  cm.;   the  25  girls  who 
matured  at  12  years  of  age  had  an  average  height   of  152.1  cm.,  with  the 
average  jor  norm  for  the  school  at  146.22  cm.;  the  56  girls  maturing  at  13 
years  of  age  had  an  average  height   of  155.3  cm.   and  the  norm  was  152.74 
cm.;   the  42  girls  maturing  at   14  years  of  age  had  an  average  height  of  159.6 
cm.  and  the  norm  was  156.97  cm.;   the  17  girls  maturing  at  15  years  of  age 
were  158.5  cm.   in  height  and  the  norm  was  159.35  cm.;  and  the  four  girls 
maturing  at   16  or  a  comparatively  late  age  were  163.2  cm.,  while  the  aver- 
age for  the   group  was  161.59  cm. 

It  was  found  that  in  working  with  the  data  for  the  53  girls   from 
the  University  of  Chicago,  those  who  matured  at  11  years  of  age  had  an 
average  height   of  146.9  cm.,  while  the  average  or  norm  was  141.     The  nine 
who  matured  at  12  years  of  age  had  an  average  height   of  151.4  cm.,   with 
the  average  or  norm  for  the  school  of  146  cm.     The  22  girls  who  matured  at 
14  years   of  age  had  an  average  height   of  154.7  and  the  norm  was  153  cm. 
The  14  girls  maturing  at  14  years  of  age  had  an  average  height   of  158.7  cm. 
and  the  norm  was   157  cm.     The   six  girls  who  matured  at  16  years  of  age 
were  159.6  cm.   in  height  and  the  norm  was  159  cm.;  and  the  two  girls 
maturing  at  16  or  a  comparatively  late  age  were  161  cm.,  with  the  average 
for  the  group  160  cm. 

k#      Conclusions 

I.     These  results   show  that   girls  who  mature  early  are  on 
the  average  close  to  the  norm  orfljelo^it.     This   is  contrary  to  the  current 
belief  that  early  maturation  is/asign  of  poor  health. 


• 


-33- 


3«  Individual  Growth  Curves 

a.  Data.  As  soon  as  the  wide  range  of  pubescent  development  in 
terms  of  chronological  ages  is  appreciated,  the  question  arises,  what 
underlying  principle  governs  this  period  of  physiological  ripening  and 
causes  such  differences  in  the  phases  of  physical  maturation.  This  may  be 
made  very  clear  by  the  following  charts  taken  from  a  previous  investigation 
(28),  where  the  individual  growth  curves  are  given  and  the  establishment 

of  the  period  of  first  menstruation  is  indicated  by  heavy  black  dots.  It 
must  be  recognized  that  a  limited  number  of  type  cases  are  given,  but  they 
are  all  approximately  normal.  Since  these  are  individual  pictures,  their 
validity  is  established  and  their  worth  of  permanent  value  for  future  anal- 
yses. An  application  of  scientific  procedure  will  find  several  other  con- 
ditions, such  as  heredity,  social  environment,  climate,  exercise  and 
nationality  as  important  determining  factors.  The  problem  here,  as  in  the 
other  sections  of  this  Study,  consists  in  finding  the  basic  facts  for  further 
study  of  the  normal  child. 

In  the  collected  results  (Chart  LVT)  it  may  be  noted  that  tall 
girls  as  a  rule  mature  earlier  than  short  ones.  This  was  shown  in  the 
writer's  original  study  (27)  by  means  of  individual  growth  curves. 

The  individual  growth  curves  in  height  shown  in  Chart  LVI  give  some 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  they  demonstrate  the  law  that  early  maturity 
means  that  growth  is  nearing  completion  in  height  as  well  as  sex  develop- 
ment. Individuals  4,  5  and  6  should  normally  mature  late,  but  they  matured 
relatively  early  and  soon  after  this  period  there  was  a  diminution  in 
growth.  This  is  very  striking  in  the  case  of  No.  6.  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3 
matured  approximately  at  normal  age  for  their  height,  since  none  are  tall 
girls.  The  tall  girls,  la  and  lb,  show  a  striking  contrast.  The  six  girls 
are  not  only  relatively  small,  but  all  have  had  serious  illnesses.  No.  1 
had  scarlet  fever  just  before  13  years  of  age.  No.  2  was  anaemic  through- 
out her  school  life,  with  lumbar  curvature,  intestinal  disturbances  and 
rapid  and  irregular  heart.   No.  3,  a  sister  of  No.  1,  had  scarlet  fever 
at  the  same  time,  with  poor  posture  during  high  school  period.  No.  4,  in 
addition  to  having  had  many  children's  diseases,  was  very  nervous.  No.  5 
had  poor  posture,  and  also  had  hernia  and  enlarged  tonsils.  No.  6  had 
enlarged  glands  of  the  neck  and  hip  disease  from  a  fall.  No.  la  and  lb  were 
healthy  Chicago  girls. 

b.  Conclusions 

I.  Tall  girls  of  a  fairly  homogeneous  group,  as  a  general 
rule  mature  earlier  than  short  ones. 

4.  Relation  of  idaturation  to  Growth 

a.  Data.  The  relation  between  the  cessation  of  growth  and  the 
advent  of  sex  maturity  may  be  shown  by  a  study  of  the  average  annual  in- 
crements of  growth  between  nine  and  18  years  of  age.  For  the  girls  who 
matured  at  11  years  the  increment  of  growth  increased  rapidly  from  nine 
to  11  and  dropped  rapidly  almost  to  the  one  centimeter  point  at  14.  For 
those  girls  who  matured  at  12  years  of  age,  there  was  an  increase  in  the 


-34- 


average  increment  until  11,  then  a  slight  drop  and  after  12  a  rapid  cessation 
until  15,  when  it  was  below  the  one  centimeter  increment.  For  those  who 
matured  at  13  there  was  a  slight  drop  at  10  and  an  increase  until  IE,  then 
a  drop  to  less  than  one  centimeter  at  16.  For  those  who  matured  at  14 
there  was  a  slight  drop  until  17,  at  which  age  the  average  is  less  than  one 
centimeter.  For  the  15  year  old  girls  there  was  a  relatively  high  incre- 
ment until  14  years,  when  there  was  a  rpid  decrease  to  less  than  one  cen- 
timeter at  17.  For  16  year  old  girls  the  rapid  drop  also  began  at  14  years 
and  reached  the  minimum  at  18  years  of  age.  (Data  from  Horace  Mann,  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  and  F.  W.  Parker  Schools) 

b.  Conclusions. 


I.  Early  maturity  is  followed,  as  a  rule,  by  a  rapid  cessation 
of  growth  in  stature.  For  girls  who  mature  at  11,  a  rapid  decrease  in 
annual  increment  follows  until  14,  where  there  is  less  than  a  centimeter 

of  growth.  For  those  who  nature  at  12  a  rapid  decrease  in  increment  follows 
until  15,  when  there  is  less  than  a  centimeter  of  growth. 

II.  For  girls  who  nature  at  13  or  later,  the  decrease  in 
increment  begins  in  the  year  previous  to  maturation,  and  reaches  one  centi- 
meter or  less  three  years  later. 

III.  The  decrease  in  yearly  increment  is  more  prolonged  for 
girls  who  mature  late. 

IV.  There  is  a  positive  correlation  between  physiological 
stages  of  maturation  and  anatomical  age,  as  evidenced  by  height,  weight, 
and  the  development  of  the  area  of  the  carpal  bones. 

5.  Applications  of  the  Concept  of  Physiological 

Age 

Six  distinct  applications  of  the  concept  of  physiological  age  in 
child  development  may  be  cited  here: 

a.  To  Physical  Training.  Physiological  age  has  a  direct  bearing 
on  physical  training  and  directed  play.  Not  only  do  children  naturally 
play  with  boys  and  girls  of  their  same  physsiological  age,  but  the  types 
of  games  in  which  they  participate  are  dependent  upon  the  stage  of  phys- 
iological maturity.  It  would  be  justifiable  to  arrange  physical  training 
schedules  in  schools  on  the  basis  of  physiological  age,  giving  boys  or 
girls  of  the  same  physiological  age  similar  types  of  exercise.  On  the  av- 
erage, girls  are  older  physiologically  than  boys. 

b.  To  Stages  of  Liental  Saturation.   Physiological  age  is,  the 
writer  believes,  directly  correlated  with  stages  of  mental  maturation.  The 
physiologically  more  mature  child  has  different  attitudes,  different  types 
of  emotions,  different  interests,  than  the  child  who  is  physically  younger 
though  of  the  same  chronological  age.  While  a  child  may  be  precocious 
intellectually,  and  have  a  high  intelligence  quotient  and  pass  beyond  its 
chronological  age  in  the  development  of  certain  mental  traits,  other  types 
of  traits  indicative  of  mental  maturity  may  be  undeveloped. 


-35- 


Another  experimental  study  just  completed  shows  that  the  mental 
age  of  the  individual  bears  a  direct  relationship  to  the  physiological 
age  as  indicated  by  height  and  weight.  The  results  show  that  at  each 
chronological  age  the  physiologically  accelerated  boys  and  girls  have  a 
higher  mental  age  than  those  of  the  average  or  below  the  average  physiolog- 
ical age.  The  girls,  when  classified  on  this  basis,  show  a  higher  mental 
age  for  a  given  chronological  age  than  do  the  boys.  Girls  are  on  the 
average  mentally  older  than  boys. 

c.  To_  School  Progress  and  Promotion.   Physiological  age  has  a 
direct  bearing  on  pedagogical  age,  as  many  of  our  schools  are  beginning  to 
recognize.  The  larger  and  physiologically  more  mature  child  may  be  able 
to  do  certain  types  of  school  work  better,  although  of  inferior  ability 

in  specific  traits  which  have  been  greatly  emphasized  by  school  curricula. 
No  child  should  be  promoted  or  demoted  without  taking  into  consideration 
his  or  her  physiological  age.  Girls  may  be  expected  to  progress  more  rapid- 
ly than  boys. 

d.  To  Industrial  Work.  There  should  be  a  direct  relationship 
between  physiological  age  and  the  age  at  which  boys  and  girls  enter  indus- 
trial work-.  Child  labor  legislation  should  take  into  consideration  the 
physiological  development  of  the  boy  or  girl  as  well  as  his  or  her  chron- 
ological age  and  school  standing.  Some  children  are  sufficiently  mature 
.physically  to  meet  the  requirements  of  an  age  limit  of  14  or  16,  while 
others  are  immature  and  in  a  stage  of  physiological  growth  where  more  school 
training,  more  physical  training  and  more  opportunity  for  physical  develop- 
ment are  essential, 

e.  To  S00ial  Adjustment.  That  there  is  a  direct  relationship  be- 
tween social  age  and  physiological  maturity  needs  only  to  be  mentioned 

to  be  evident.  Some  girls  at  a  given  chronological  age  are  sufficiently 
mature  to  meet  the  social  conditions  which  may  arise,  while  others  are  not. 
It  is  apparent  that  in  dealing  with  children,  especially  delinquents,  be- 
tween 10  and  18  years  of  age,  there  is  a  tremendous  problem  involved  which 
rests  directly  on  the  physiological  age  of  the  individual.  Girls  face 
this  problem  earlier  on  the  average  than  do  boys.  In  a  particular  case 
it  may  mean  a  social  misfit  for  life  with  another  child  involved,  or  the 
individual  may  be  subject  to  remedial  social  training  and  development. 

f.  To  Moral  and  Religious  Awakenings.  The  commonly  observed 
periods  of  moral  and  religious  awakening  in  children,  particularly  at  12 

to  16  years  of  age,  show  that  there  is  a  close  relationship  between  physio- 
logical age  and  religious  development,  with  girls  preceding  boys. 


-36- 

PART  IV 

CHAPTER  IX 
HISTORICAL  ORIENTATION 
1 .   INTRODUCTION 

a.  General  Summaries  of  Literature  on  Growth.     During  the  past 
two  centuries  there  have  been~~many  valuable~~scientific   investigations 
in  physical   grovrth,  but  only  a  few  sustained  efforts  have  been  made  to 
make  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  field,   aside  from  reviews  from  parti- 
cular  angles,     A  portion  of  the  literature  on  growth  is   summarized  in 
Roberts'    (663)  Manual   of  Anthropometry,    1878;    Sack's    (681)   dissertation, 
1892;    Topinard's    (822)  Anthropology,    1895;    Burk's    (136)   Growth  of 
Children  in  Height   and   //eight,    1898;   Kacdonald's    (490)   Experimental 
Study  oT  ChTiT^ren,    1897;   Daffner's    (193)   Das  Wachstuia  des  }  enschen, 
1902;   Ernst   and  Neumann's    (241)   Das   Schulkind   in   seinerTfrrperlichen 
und   geirben  Ent-  icklung,    1906;   Vierordt's    (ft46~}~~Anatomische  und   geisten 
physikal ische  I)  at  en  und  Tabellen,    1 906 ;   Wei s s enberg's    (R65)   Das  Wachstum 
des  Tense  hen,    1911;   Balcy-in's    (27)  Physical  Growth  and   SchooTTrogress, 
T5T4:   rartin's    (505)   Anthropology,    1914;    and  Hrdlick"aTs    (405)   Physical 
Anthropology,    1919.  — — 

b.  International  Scope  of  Contributions.     The  present  status  of 
the   scientific   literature  on  physical   growth  shows  many  countries  contri- 
buting,  among  vrhich  are  America,   England,   Scotland,   Ireland,   Canada, 
Australia,  France,  Norway,  Denmark,   Sweden,   Spain,  Holland,   Belgium, 
Switzerland,   Italy,   Germany,   Austria,  Russia,   Poland,   Finland,   China, 
Japan,   and  the  Philippine  Islands. 

The  largest  amount   of  scientific  material   and  probably  the  best, 
has  been  gathered  or  formulated  in  the  United  States,  England,   Germany, 
France,   Russia  and  the  Scandinavian  countries,  with  little  from  South 
America  and  from  China  directly.     Repeated  attempts  have  been  made  to 
secure  available  material  through  correspondence  and  conferences.     In 
England  the   investigations  have  usually  included  large  numbers  of  indivi- 
duals,  principalis   adults,   and  have  been  undertaken  for  practical  ethno- 
logical,   sociological,  military  and  hygienic  purposes.      In  Germany,  where 
more  detailed  analytical  work  has  been  done  with  children  and  adults,   tfoe 
point  of  view  is  that  of  the  physiological  development  of  the   individual. 
In  Russia  the  physiological   and  pedagogical  points  of  view  have  also  pre- 
dominated;  in  Italy  the   criminal   and  pedagogical;   in  China  and  Japan  the 
pedagogical;  while  in  Norway,   Sweden  and  the  Netherlands  the  anthropologi- 
cal and  pedagogical  motivations  have  been  the   determining  factor.     In 
America,   where   large  numbers  of  children  have  been  measured  and  compared 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,   the  work  has  been  done  primarily  by 
physicians,    anthropologists,    anthropometrists,   psychologists   and  educators. 


-37- 


2.  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  GROWTH  STUDIES 


a.  General  Fields  Included.  In  making  an  historical  survey  of  the 
scope,  methods  and  purposes  of  investigations  of  physical  growth,  it  may  be 
noted  that  the  scope  includes  the  study  of  infants,  both  prenatal  and  post- 
natal, children,  adults,  and  occasional  comparisons  between  animals  and  human 
beings.  The  group  method  has  predominated,  where  different  groups  of  indivi- 
duals have  been  measured  for  different  ages  and  the  averages  obtained  have 
been  supposed  to  represent  consecutive  growth  periods  in  the  same  individual. 
The  literature  shows  very  few  studies  on  a  considerable  number  of  cases  by 
the  individualizing  method.  The  earliest  of  these  v/as  published  by  Vahl  (832) 
1884,  followed  by  that  of  Landsberger  (456),  1888,  who  measured  37* children 
for  a  period  of  seven  years.  Then  followed  Wiener  (879),  1890,  who  measured 
his  four  sons  consecutively  from  birth  through  childhood.   In  1910  King  (437) 
presented  measurements  of  his  two  boys,  in  one  case  for  six  years  and  in  the 
other  for  three  years.  There  have  been  other  studies  of  individual  children 
by  rrs.  r.  S.  Hall,  (342),  by  Major,  by  Karnitzky  (422),  Wissler  (883),  Moon 
(534  and  535),  Boas  and  "Tissler  (100),  and  by  Camerer  (144-148).   Godin  (299), 
1910,  presented  the  results  of  four  annual  measurements  on  100  boys.  Matthias 
(507),  1916,  investigated  the  effect  of  physical  exercise  on  737  Swiss  athletes, 
each  measured  three  times  a  year  from  the  age  of  16  to  22.  Porter  (618)  in 
1920  had  obtained  weight  data  on  a  large  number  of  Boston  public  school  children 
who  had  been  weighed  from  1909  to  1919.  The  investigations  of  Baldwin  (27  and 
this  StudyO  follow  the  individual  grov/th  curves  for  a  number  of  physical  traits 
on  several  hundred  children  from  various  sections  of  the  United  States  for 
periods  of  10  to  12  years. 

h.  The  Influence  of  Sculpture  and  Painting  on  the  Study  of  Growth. 
Scientific  anthropometry  arose  mainly  ft  cm  the  desire^tcTTind  theTest  pro- 
porticns  for  the  beautiful  forms  that  artists  wished  to  represent.  Although 
no  specific  references  have  been  found  in  Greek  and  Roman  literature  to  actual 
anthropometric  work  among  these  peoples  it  is  evident  that  the  sculptors  must 
have  measured  the  human  body  in  order  to  make  the  exact  copies  of  the  victors 
in  the  athletic  games  whose  statues  were  customarily  placed  in  temples  and 
public  squares  and  served  as  examples  or  norms  of  perfect  physical  development. 
It  is  known  that  artists  were  in  the  habit  of  frequenting  the  gymnasia  in  order 
to  study  the  physique  of  the  youths  and  maidens  who  v.ere  exercising  there. 
Phidias  is  said  to  have  used  twenty  models  in  order  that  the  most  beautiful 
parts  of  eacfh, might  be  assembled  into  one  figure. 

The  artistic  tradition  was  carried  on  by  Durer ' s  (226)  folio  published 
in  rluremberg,  1528,  which  contained  much  material  on  human  proportions.   In 
1654  Elsholt  (232)  published  at  Padua  his  Anthropometria,  the  first  modern  work 
on  anthropometry,  in  which  were  included  pictures  of  the  perfect  body  and  il- 
lustrations of  anthropometric  instruments.  Audran  (21  published  a  study  at 
Paris,  1683,  which  gave  the  diagrams  and  measurements  of .  twenty-five  famous 
statues.  Bergnuller  (55 )   1728  wrote  one  of  the  early  treatises  on  anthropometry 
David  (201)  1798,  also  published  material  about  the  famous  statues  of  antiquity". 

The  historical  association  of  the  artistic  movement  with  the  interest 
in  anthropometry  generally  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1770  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  called  attention  in  an  address  delivered  before  the  Royal  Academy  of 


-38- 


Fine  Arts  to  the  differences  in  the  measurements  of  the  human  form  from 
c'ildhood  to  adult  life.  Camper's  (157)  1803,  works  may  serve  as  an  example 
of  the  earlier  modern  anatomical  treatises.   It  is  to  Quetelet,  v;ho  coined 
the  word  anthropometry,  that  credit  should  be  given  for  the  first  scientific 
study  of  physical  growth.  In  1830  were  published  the  results  of  these  first 
investigations  in  whieh  the  artistic  procedure  T/as  joined  to  the  new  scientific 
method  of  empirical  measure  ent  and  induction.  The  artistic  tradition  was  con- 
tinued in  such  work  as  that  of  Fock  (256)  1850,  who  posited  Apollo  Belvedere 
as  the  model  for  human  proportions,  and  of  Story  (786)  1866,  who  gave  a  detail- 
ed study  of  parts  of  the  body  with  many  allusions  to  the  work  of  classical 
scientists,  T-hile  Schadow's  (696)  Polyclet,  1834,  carried  the  study  of  human 
proportions  a  step  further  in  that  it  took  account  of  sex  and  age  and  gave 
actxial  life  sizes. 

3.  METHODS  AND  TECHNIQUE 

A.  LACK  OF  UNIFORMITY  IN  KETHODS 

Since  these  early  studies  a  vast  amount  of  work  has  been  done  in  the 
field  of  experimental  measurements  and  physical  tests.  Unfortunately  there 
has  been  a  great  lack  of  uniformity  in  methods  of  measuring,  standardization 
of  instruments,  units  of  measurement,  parts  to  be  measured,  topographic  points 
to  be  accepted,  methods  of  recording  data,  methods  of  estimating  ages,  time  of 
day  for  measuring,  and  intervals  for  repetition  of  measurement.   The  English 
authorities  and  many  Americans  have  used  the  inch  divided  into  tenths  as  a 
unit  measure,  although  many  investigators  have  used  the  eighth  of  an  inch.  In 
practically  all  other  countries,  the  metric,  or  French  system,  has  been  used, 
•  ith  obvious  advantages,  since  the  system  is  the  scientific  standard  used  in 
most  countries  and  in  all  other  departments  of  science;  it  is  a  decimal  system 
and  is  easily  translated  into  the  English  system. 

There  has  also  been  great  confusion  in  the  selection  of  the  parts  to 
be  measured,  since  this  should  be  dependent  upon  the  purpose  for  which  the 
measurements  are  being  taken  —  that  is,  the  value  to  the  individual  examined, 
the  value  to  anthropology,  the  value  for  the  science  of  physical  measurements, 
the  value  for  an  educational  program,  or  the  value  for  correlations  with  psy- 
chological traits.  7/hat  is  needed  at  present  is  a  standardization  of  all  these 
factors  and  a  definite  statement  of  the  purpose  for  which  each  investigation 
has  been  made. 

B.  THEORETICAL  DISCUSSIONS  AND  GENERAL  TREATISES  ON  GROVvTK  ' 

Many  contributions  to  the  theory  of  anthropometry  and  numerous  con- 
siderations of  technical  questions  are  to  be  found  in  extensive  investigations 
which  are  listed  in  later  sections  of  this  historical  orientation.  The  sum- 
maries of  the  literature  on  growth  listed  in  Part  VI  also  contain  much  material 
of  this  kind.  The  first  important  special  contribution  to  theory  was  Galton's 
(282)  short  account  of  an  anthropometric  laboratory  and  his  (283  and  284)  dis- 
cussion of  anthropometric  percentiles,  1884  and  1885.  Boas  (83)  in  1^94  con- 
tributed to  the  theory  of  measurements  and  in  1904  published  his  discussion 
of  variable  quantities  (92).   In  1894  Pearson  (575)  v/rote  on  Galton's  per- 
centile method.  Boas  and  "^issler  (100)  1904,  issued  their  study  on  statistics 
of  growth  which  v;as  a  continuation  of  Boas'  (91)  1902  statistical  study  of 
anthrometry.  "/feissenberg1  s  (Q60)  anthropometric  principles  and  methods  appear- 
ed in  1904.  As  early  as  1893  Titchener  (821)  made  a  noteworthy  distinction 
between  anthropometry  and  experimental  psychology.  The  latest  contribution 


-  39  - 


to  this  field  in  Hrdlicka's  (406)  articles  on  the  anthropometry  of  the 
living  in  1919.  The  recent  works  of  Schifltz  (707),  1919,  in  Norway  and 
of  Orum  (569),  1919,  in  Denmark,  make  special  contributions  to  statistical 
method.. 

Among  the  writers  of  general  treatises  bearing  directly  on  growth, 
those  that  are  most  significant  are  Thoma  (812  and  813),  1882,  Frolick  (275)' 
1896,  Ellis  (231),  1896,  Donaldson  (213),  1896,  Chamberlain  (165)  1900, 
Thorndike  (817)  1901,  Buschan  (139)  1909,  Griffith  (321)  1909,  Boas  (96-98) 
1912,  Kirkpatrick  (440)  1917. 

C .  MANUALS 

A  description  of  the  methods  of  making  physical  measurement  with 
tables  of  norms  and  an  account  of  the  general  grov/th  process  has  been  publish- 
ed in  manual  form  by  Gulick  (328),  1892,  Megret  (516)  1895,  Hitchcock,  Seeley 
and  Phillips  (390)  1900,  Hastings  (356)  1902,  and  by  Seaver  (743)  1909.  Books 
on  statistical  methods  which  are  applicable  to  anthropometric  work  are  Daven- 
port's (197)  Statistical  Methods,  1899,  and  Thorndike's  (818)  Mental  and 
Social  Measurements.  

D.  GROWTH  FORMULAE 

Probably  the  greatest  development  in  anthropometric  methods  of 
recent  years  has  consisted  in  the  extended  use  of  mathematical  expressions 
for  various  growth  phenomena.  Beginning  with  Quetelet  in  1836,  investigators 
who  have  had  at  their  disposal  a  collection  of  various  measurements  of  the 
body  on  different  individuals  for  an  extended  series  of  years,  permitting 
them  to  calculate  the  yearly  increments,  have  attempted  to  express  their 
growth  curve  by  means  of  a  mathematical  equation.  Since  this  pioneer  work 
the  derivation  of  'formulae  has  aided  materially  in  the  development  of  a 
science  of  human  growth  and  also  in  coordinating  and  correlating  the  work 
of  the  various  investigators,  especially  in  reference  to  tdal  and  partial 
growth  of  the  body.  It  should  be  noted  that  all  of  the  formulae  are  only 
approximations,  for  growth  varies  in  total  and  partial  bodily  proportions 
at  different  chronological  ages,  in  different  sexes,  in  different  races,  at 
different  stages  of  physiological  maturation,  at  different  times  of  the  year, 
and  under  various  environmental  and  nutritional  conditions. 

(1)  Rate  of  Growth.  One  class  of  these  formulae  has  been  design- 
ed to  express  the  normal""rate  of  growth  throughout  life;  that  is,  to  give  the 
shape  of  the  curve  for  relationships  of  particular  measurements  such  as 
hieght  or  weight.  Such  formulae  rest  on  the  assumption  that  the  normal  in- 
dividual has  a  certain  growth  capacity  or  growth  energy  at  birth.  Consequent- 
ly the  value  of  any  measurement  at  any  time  of  life  can  be  obtained  by  solv- 
ing an  equation  in  which  certain  other  values  are  known.  For  example,  in- 
stead of  comparing  the  actual  weight  of  an  infant  with  the  norm  for  its  age, 
the  weight  it  should  have  at  that  age  may  be  calculated  by  filling  in  the 
formula.  Some  writers  have  constructed  tables  of  norms  by  making  a  few 
determinations  and  interpolating  values  that  seem  to  conform  to  the  growth 
curve  as  they  find  it.  Accurate  formulae,  including  relationships  for  more 
than  a  few  years,  have  been  impossible,  particularly  previous  to  this  Study 
since  individual  grovrth  curves  for  childhood  have  not  been  available.  ' 


-40- 

Quetelet  (626-634)  used  both  Glasses  of  formulae,  concluding 
that  the  weight  of  the  "body  of  the  various  years  of  life  is  proportional 
to  the  fifth  power  of  height.  The  formula  is: 

1.  For  Y/eight.        g  =  G-T/jT 

where 

g  »  weight  to  be  found;  G  «  birth  weight;  1  «•  height; 
L  «  birth  height. 

The  increase  in  weight  has  also  been  worked  out  theoretically  bv 
Pinkelstein.  * 

2.  For  height  increase  Quetelet  used  the  formula: 

y     -  a  x  -   t  +  x     where 

y  -  1000  (  T  -  y)         1  +  4/3x 
x  =  age  in  years;  y  »  height  corresponding  to  this; 
t  ■  height  of  new-born;  T  =  height  of  adult; 
a  ■  yearly  increase  between  ages  4*16. 

An  elaborate  but  somewhat  fantastic  and  inaccurate  scheme  was  devised 
by  Liharzik  (474),  1858.  The  result  seemed  to  indicate  that  all  measure- 
ments show  that  growth  takes  place  in  epochs  and  that  in  each  period  of  a 
single  epoch  the  same  increase  takes  place;  i.e.  if  L  is  the  height  at  birth, 
this  increases  in  the  first  month  by  A  in  the  second  and  third  months  together 
by  \   ;  m  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  months  by  X  .  The  second  epoch  begins 
from  the  twenty-second  to  the  twenty-eighth  month,  from  the  twenty-ninth  to 
the  thirty-sixth  month,  and  so  on,  to  171  months,  the  increase  in  each  case 
being  still  X.  The  third  epoch  has  a  similar  increase.  Liharzik's  division 
into  epochs  and  periods  with  the  corresponding  months  of  life  was: 

1.  Epoch  6-5/6  cm.  increase 

Period    12    3    4    5    6 
Months    1    3    6   10   15   21 

II.  Epoch  6  cm.  increase 

Period    7    8    9   10   11   12   13   14   15   16   17   18 
Months   28   36   45   55   66   78   91  105  120  136  153  171 

III.  Epoch  2  cm.  increase. 

Period   19   20   21  ZZ       23   24 
Months  190  210  231  253  276  300 

ioqo  vLJha^zi3c  did  not  work  out  his  formula  mathematically  but  Raudnitz  (648), 
1892,  had  Liharzik's  measurements  worked  over  by  a  mathematician  who  devised 
formulae. 

Zeising  (906),  1858,  believed  that  growth  in  height  took  place  in  such 
a  way  that  the  parts  of  the  body  were  related  to  each  other  in  the  ratio  of 
the  golden  section.   2he  formula  is: 

x  :  y  :  :  y  :  (x  +  y). 

Another  early  mathematical  derivation  of  a  growth  formula,  but  without 
observational  material,  was  made  by  Kaiser  (420),  1875.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  give  mathematical  expression  to  the  general  bio-chemical  law  of  growth. 
Robertson,  (664)  1897,  published  a  growth  formula  derived  from  the  results 


-41- 


of  Quetelet  and  of  the  British  Anthropometric  Committee.   It  was  found 
that  any  particular  cycle  of  growth  obeys  the  formula: 

log x =  K  ( t  -  t  i) 

A  -  x 

where  x  -  amount  (in  weight  or  volume)  of  growth  which  has  been  attained 
during  the  cycle;  K  is  a  constant;  and  t  -  time  at  which  the  growth  due  to 
the  cycle  is  half  completed.  The  author  shows  that  the  formula  holds  true 
for  plants  and  their  elements  as  well  and  thinks  that  growth  is  an  auto- 
catalyzed  process  in  both  inorganic  and  organic  life. 

The  belief  in  the  parabolic  character  of  the  growth  curve  has  led 
to  a  considerable  amount  of  discussion.  Wiener,  1890,  (879)  reported  con- 
tinuous measurements  on  his  four  sons.   Inspection  of  these  measurements  led 
Wiener  to  the  belief  that  between  the  ages  two  and  12  the  growth  curve  is 
part  of  a  parabola  which  can  be  analyzed  to  give  the  general  formula: 

y*  =  a  (x  +  b). 

According  to  this  formula,  the  axis  of  the  parabola  is  parallel  to 
the  abcissa  and  its  vertex  is  located  to  the  left  of  the  middle  of  the  system 
at  a  distance  represented  by  b.»  the  values  of  the  constants  a  and  Jb  varying 
somewhat  with  different  individuals.  Hall  (341),  1895,  in  a  study  of  the 
principles  of  growth  by  rhythms  concludes,  "When  the  vertical  dimensions 
of  the  human  body  are  undergoing  acceleration  of  their  rate  of  growth,  the 
horizontal  dimensions  undergo  a  retardation  of  their  rate  of  growth,  and 
conversely. ■ 

In   1903  von  Lange  (460)  corroborated  Wiener's  findings  in  regard  to 
the  parabolic  characteristics  of  the  curve  from  two  years  to  the  beginning  of 
puberty,  but  tried  to  draw  an  analogy  between  the  laws  governing  growth  and 
the  general  laws  of  motion. 

Reinus  (651)  1915,  in  a  dissertation  under  Pfaundler' s  direction, 
made  an  attempt,  with  different  sets  of  measurements  drawn  from  the  literature 
on  growth  in  height,  to  find  a  parabola  that  would  fit  the  observed  facts. 
Pfaundler  (590)  1916-17,  working  over  the  data  of  Friedenthal  on  the  average 
growth  curve  of  the  typical  male,  found  a  formula  which  would  express  growth 
in  height  from  birth  to  the  end  of  puberty.  This  is: 

x\s  n  y  3 

where  x  »  the  age  in  years  dating  from  the  time  of  conception;  y  •  the  height 
in  meters;  and  n  ■  a  constant  about  4.75  in  value.  This  formula  means  that 
age  is  proportional  to  the  third  power  of  height.  By  mathematical  procedure, 
Pfaundler  also  found  that  when  height  and  density  remain  constant,  weight  during 
the  growing  period  is  also  proportional  to  age. 

Another  type  of  formula  has  been  developed  by  Workers  on  the  caloric 
requirements  of  infants,  since  the  amount  of  milk  to  be  given  at  each  feed- 
ing is  to  be  computed  on  the  basis  of  the  "theoretical  weight"  for  any 
particular  age.  Daniels  and  Byfield  (195)  1919,  for  example,  find  the 


-42- 


theoretical  weight  by  using  the  following  adaptation  of  Finkels tein's  rule: 
birth  weight  -  (600  X  age  in  months)  =  300  -  weight  for  first  six  months, 
^irth  weight  -  (500  X  age  in  months) »  weight  for  second  six  months. 

(2)  Relationships  in  Growth.  A  second  class  of  formulae  expresses 
!he  relationship  between  jtwo  Physical  traits.  The. use  of  these  formulae 

°Vf<ttelVfi?diCeS"  iS  based  on  the  assumption  that  there  is  a  constant' 
relationship  between  the  growth  of  the  body  in  the  two  traits  concerned 
as  for  example,  in  height  and  in  weight.  A  few  investigators  have  constructed 
curves  showing  the  value  of  these  indices  for  each  year  of  life  and  the 
curves  have  been  used  for  diagnostic  purposes. 

Boulton  (108)  1876,  though  offering  no  formula,  stressed  the 
constant  relationship  between  weight  and  height  and  foreshadowed  the  modern 
point  of  view  that  weight  alone  is  no  criterion  of  normal  development.   It 
Ui7feiQQAati?n  °f  ^e  !W°  exV*esai*Z   robustness  that  is  important.  Porter 
I     ,   /?;??  fio°  em?hasised  t^e  importance  of  the  height-weight  ratio. 
Bamce  (644)  1894-1900,  used  the  following  formulae: 

Weight-height  index  »  _W;      Vital-height  index  r  V 


•H 


H 


Leg-height  index  ^_L;         Head-height  index  =  h 


H 


II 


i*l  v.  i  ,.Enebuske  <235>  1892"94  assembled  or  devised  formulae  for  the  follow- 
ing  relations: 

Total  strength-weight  index  -  T^;  Power  index  — 

¥~  ~" 

If 

TS  ^;  Vital  strength-weight   index  -  f£  x  f£ 

w  WW. 

Oeder  (555-557)  1909  and  1910  combined  height  and  weight  into  an 

user;inle^heferf.(665)  1911'  C°mpared  ^^^en  measurements  lith  height  and 
used  nine  other  indices  expressing  the  relations  of  various  parts  of  thf  body 
no  eacn  other.  ^*^ 

of  hM*ht  ^ertn-rJ278)  1912'  devel°Ped  a  f°™la  to  express  the  relationship 
of  height  and  weight,  computing  thereby  a  table  for  the  normal  weight  of  adult 
men  and  women  (for  each  1  centimeter  increase  in  height). 

Tuxford  (826)  1917,  has  used  a  formula  in  which  the  variable  factors 


are: 


For  Bovs-      Weight, in ^rams   58JL_^_age  in  months 
*  '      Height  in  cms.  A        54 

For  Girls:      Ifti^LAn  grams  x  _384  -  age  in  months 
Height  in  cms.  48 

The  results  are  empirical  and  fall  within  childhood  ages.  This 
writer  states  that  the  average  for  normal  children  should  fall  within  990  and  1010, 


-43- 

Matusiewie*  (508)  1914,  also  -wrote  on  the  height-weight  coefficient. 

An  index  relating  height  and  arm  span  was  discussed  by  Knoop  (444) 
1918.  Feri  (252)  1893,  developed  a  relationship  between  length  of  trunk  and 
weight. 

(3)  Total  and  Partial  Growth  in  Volume.  A  recent  trend  has  been  the 
development  of  formulae  7hich  Thould  notTrepresent  merely  linear  relationship 
but  should  take  into  account  the  fact  that  the  body  is  a  three  dimensional 
object.  As  early  as  1879  Meeh  (514)  began  a  study  of  regions  or  parts  of  the 
body  to  be  measured  and  of  the  body  and  total  volume,  and  in  1895  (515)  a  re- 
lationship was  shown  between  the  volume  of  a  single  part  of  the  body  and  total 
volume  in  infant  and  adult  life. 

Among  formulae  designed  to  introduce  the  factor  of  the  third  dimen- 
sion is  the  "index  ponderalis"  of  Livi  (482)  1899.  This  is: 

100     "$T" 

r~~ 

where  P  s  weight  and  L  s  height. 

Another  formula  takes  into  consideration  chest  circumference  as  well 
as  height  and  weight.  This  was  introduced  by  Pignet  (598  and  599)  in  1900  and 
1901  as  the  "coefficient  du  robusticitie."  It  has  been  widely  used  in  the 
German  and  Frenoh  armies.  The  formula  is: 

N  -  H  -  (B  f  K) 

where  N  ■  the  numerical  index;  H  z   height  in  centimeters;  B  s  chest  circumfer- 
ence in  centimeters;  K  s  weight  in  kilograms.  When  the  weight  and  chext  cir- 
cumference are  especially  large  compared  with  the  height  of  the  individual,  the 
size  of  the  index  is  small.  On  the  basis  of  this  fact,  Pignet  divided  indivi- 
duals into  seven  classes,  ranging  from  the  group  containing  the  best  developed 
with  a  coefficient  of  1  to  10,  to  the  group  including  physical  weaklings  with 
a  coefficient  of  abone  35.  Rarely  there  occured  cases  of  over  development 
where  the  coefficient  was  zero  or  negative.  Mayet  (511  and  512)  1906  and  1912, 
applied  Pignet1 s  formula  to  children.  A  report  (10)  on  its  use  with  Chinese 
and  Indian  subjects  was  made  in  1916. 

Rohrer  (671)  1908,  emphasized  the  significance  of  the  quotient  obtain- 
ed by  dividing  the  weight  in  grams  x  100  by  the  cube  of  the  height  in  centimeters 
This  was  called  the  "index  der  Korperffllle."  Bardeen  (32)  1918,  used  a  modi- 
fication of  Rohrer' s  formula,  computing  an  "index  of  build"  by  dividing  the 
weight  in  pounds  by  the  cube  of  the  stature  in  inches  and  multiplying  the  quo- 
tient by  1000.  This  formula  was  applied  to  the  data  of  B^Jwin  (29),  using  as 
a  general  presupposition  the  assumption  that  a  pound  of  the  body  equals  a  three 
inch  cube.  As  is  well  known  in  physics,  the  volume  of""~objects  of  the  same"™ 
shape~b"ut  of  different  sizes  varies  as  the  cube  of  their  diameters.  Bardeen 
says:   "We  reach  the  same  result  by  dividing  the  weight  in  pounds  by  the  cube 
of  a  tenth  of  the  height  or  by  the  thousandth  part  of  the  cube  of  the  height 
in  inches.  Therefore,  as  a  height-weight  index  in  the  study  of  stature,  weight, 
and  body-form,  we  have  adopted  the  weight  of  the  body  in  pounds  divided  bv 
the  thousandth  part  of  the  cube  of  the  height  in  inches."  Rohrer1 s  formula 

has  also  been  employed  by  Berliner  (56)  1920.  Davenport  (199a)  recommends 


-44- 

dividing  the  weight  by  the  square  of  the  height.  He  unfortunately  based  his 
results  on  Quetelet's  inaccurate  data  of  ten  cases  of  each  age  and  the  untenable 
presupposition  that  short  children  are  on  the  average  stockier.  The  formula 
is  a  very  promising  one. 

In  accordance  with  the  same  conception  of  the  cubical  character  of  the 
body,  von  Pirquet  (600)  1913,  stressed  the  height-weight  index  as  a  criterion 
of  the  individual's  nutritional  condition.  Another  formula  introduced  in  1916 
by  von  Pirquet  (601)  used  the  relationship  of  weight  and  sitting  height  thus: 


where  G  s  weight  and  S  r  sitting  height. 

Although  a  full  consideration  of  formulae  for  volume,  specific  gravity, 
density  and  cubical  content  of  the  body  is  undesirable  in  this  survey,  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  v/ork  of  Braune  and  Fischer  (117)  1889,  Kies  (525)  1899, 
"fengler  (869)  1906,  Kastner  (423)  1911-12,  Pfaundler  (589)  1911-12,  (590)  1916- 
17. 

(4)  Growth  in  Surface  Area.  It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  investi- 
gation to  enter  into  a~"full  account  of  the  subject  of  the  surface  area  of  the 
body  of  normal  growing  children;  but  reference  should  be  made  to  a  few  of  the 
most  significant  studies,  since  there  is  a  direct  relationship  between  cutaneous 
surface  and  volume  and  a  direct  relationship  between  volume  and  linear  growth 
and  also  weight.  The  surface  varies  with  shape  and  volume.  A  student  of  Vier- 
ordt,  Heeh  (514)  1879,  assuming  that  individuals  are  similar  in  shape,  and  dis- 
regarding the  differences  between  infants  and  adults,  proposed  the  formula: 

S  s  K  W  2/5 

where  S  s  area;  If  -  weight;  and  K  ■  a  constant  based  upon  the  experimenter1 s 
data.  Seaver  (743)  1909,  found  that  a  determination  of  the  superficial  area 
of  a  person  which  may  be  of  vaue  for  special  purposes  may  be  found  in  square 
centimeters : 

Sq.  ems.  s  11  x~y  weight  ~2  (in  grams). 

A  general  survey  of  work  on  the  determination  of  body  surface  was  given 
by  Lissauer  (480)  1903.  Other  significant  studies  are  those  of  von  Hfisslin 
(398)  1888,  Miwa  and  Stoeltzner  (529)  1898,  Sichoff  (753)  1902,  Maurel  (510) 
1904,  and  Lassabliere  (465)  1910,  Moleschott,  Vierordt  and  Lissauer  calculated 
areas  topographically  on  geometrical  principles  or  used  coverings  of  millimeter 
paper  or  tinfoil  and  measured  the  amount  of  covering  used,  or  covered  the  body 
vfith  color  and  transferred  the  color  to  absorbant  paper  and  calculated  the  amount 
of  paper  covered.  Pfaundler  (590)  1916-17,  used  plaster  strips  in  a  similar 
manner.  He  (589)  also  gives  a  good  historical  resume.  Howland  and  Dana  (400) 
1913,  have  used  for  infants  the  formula: 

Y  *   0.483X  f  730 

where  Y  s  body  surface  in  square  centimeters;  X  s  weight  in  grams.  Du  Bois  and 
Du  Bois  (220  and  221)  1915  and  1916,  and  Sawyer,  Stone  and  DuBois  (694),  disre- 
garding weight  and  volume,  have  made  the  most  extensive,  empirical  studies, 


- 


I 


-45- 


surnniarizing  the   literature  of  the  field.      They  allowed  for  the   spherical  nature 
of  the  head,   the  cylindrical   form  of  the  neck,   legs  and  arms,   and  the  cylindrical 
or   spherical   tendencies  of  the  trunk  at  different  ages,     Benedict   (50)   1916, 
used  the   silhouette  photographs   similar  to  the  method  worked  out  by  others. 
Bardeen  (32)  1918,  using  linear  measurement,  weight  and  volume,   assumed  the 
specific   gravity  of  the  body  to  be  1.000  when  dealing  with  centimeter-gram 
units  and  compared  the  body  with  a  square  cross   section  block.     The  formula  is: 

w 
S.K(2!M4) 

where  S  a  surface-area,  77  is  v.- eight  in  grams,  H  height  in  centimeters,  and  K 
is  a  constant.  In  the  formula,  ^  gives  the  surface  area  of  each  end  of  the 

block,  H  ^  the  surface-area  of  one  side  of  the  block.  K  has  to  be  determined 
from  the  observed  surface-area  of  the  individuals,  of  given  height  and  weight* 
If  inch-pound  untis  are  used,  one  must  substitute  W  x  27.68  for  7/  in  the  for- 
ula  given  above  if  the  same  specific  gravity  is  assumed  as  in  this  formula, 
or  W  x  27  if  one  assumes  the  same  specific  gravity  assumed  in  dealing  with  vol- 
ume. K  varies  with  age,  sex  and  nutritional  condition  of  individuals.  For 
example,  for  a  six  months  infant,  K  a  1.53.  Bardeen  also  gives  the  regional 
distribution  of  surface  areas. 

(5)  Graphic  Representations  of  Growth*  Closely  associated  with  the 
introduction  of  formulae  expressive  of~total  or  partial  growth  has  been  the 
development  of  graphic  diagrams  and  charts  designed  to  show  on  a  comparative 
basis  with  standards,  the  physical  condition  of  the  person  or  group  of  persons. 
Graphic  anthropometry  probably  originated  prior  to  Quetelet,  who  showed  in 
graphic  form  the  binomial  distribution  curve  with  the  mean  for  specific  measure- 
ments. Amonr,  the  investigators  who  have  developed  "charting"  of  physiological 
traits  are:  Galton  (283  and  284)  1884,  1P85,  who  first  showed  the  significance 
of  percentiles;  Stieda  (781)  1^82-83,  whose  work  was  largely  theoretical;  Sergi 
(748)  1886,  who developed  an  anthropological  cabinet:  Bertillon  (59  and  60)  1889 
and  1896,  and  Muller  (542)  1887,  who  were  particularly  interested  in  the  identi- 
fication of  criminals.  Jeanneret  and  Messerli  (418)  1917,  developed  a  photo- 
ant  hropometric  method. 

In  America  the  early  pioneer  work  in  graphic  anthropometry  through 
charts  and  synoptic  tables  was  developed  and  fostered  by  Sargent  (680  and  692) 
1886  and  1893,  and  Hitchcock  (378-388),  whose  contributions  appeared  from  1887 
on,  Gulick  (328-330)  1892  and  1893,  Hartwell  (350-352)  1893,  Jackson  (415  and 
416)  1892  and  1893,  Eastings  (354  and  356)  1898  and  1902,  and  Seaver  (743)  1909. 

In  France,  Topinard's  (822)  Lf anthropologic,  with  its  excellent  chapters 
on  craniology,  appeared  in  1895.  In  Germany  there  was  Friedenthal* s  (273) 
Uber  Wachstum,  1912  and  1913,  and  two  articles  by  v.  Lange  (459  and  460)  1896 
and  lWZ~.       ^~~ 

Among  others  7/ho  have  developed  graphic  charts  designed  for  score  cards 
or  norms  of  physical  measurements  are  V/ood  (888-893)  1890-1918,  Hanna  (345)  1893, 
Kellogg  (425)  1893,  v.  Pirquet  (600)  1913,  Baldwin  (29)  1919,  Children's  Bureau 
(168)  1918,  and  Bardeen  (33  and  34)  1920. 


a  si 


-47- 


Drontschilow  (218  and  219)   1914  and  1915,  anthropological  studies  on  Bulgarians; 
Spitzer   (770)   1915,  Krakau;  Bartucz   (37)   1916,  Magyars. 

(3)  American.     The  Americans  have  recently  been  less    interested  in 
racial  differences  than  in  pedagogical  anthropometry.     The  first   significant 
study  in  America  was  that    of  Dickson  (207)   1857,    continued  in  1858   (208),  who 
made  detailed  statistical   observations   on  the  height  and  weight   of  the  southern 
men.     In  1866   (209)  a  report   showed  that  the  new  American  race  growing  out  of 
an  almost  unlimited  mixture  of  other  races  compared  favorably  with  all  the 
races  of  the  Old  World  in  every  point  of  physical  development,  and  showed  no 
deterioration.     Other   studies  v/ere  made  by  Bowditch   (112)   1890,   Massachusetts 
•women;  Boas   (80,   81  and  85)   1891  and  1895,   physical  characteristics  of  the 
Indians,    1905   (93)  anthropometry  of  central  California,   1911  (^95)   descendants   of 
immigrants,    1920  (102)  anthropometry  of  Porto  Rico;   Hrdlicka   (401  and  403)   1898 
and  1899,   comparison  of  white  and   colored  children  and  1908   (404)   observations 
on  Indians;  Bobbitt   (103)   1909,   Filipinos  Bean  (42  and  43)   1914-15,  American, 
German-American  and  Philippine  children;   Nicholas   (550)   1919,   a  history  of 
physical  anthropology  in  Mexico. 

(4)  French.     In  France  the  interest   in  racial  differences  has  been  a 
recent  development.     Convy's     176)   1907,   study  was  followed  by  Verneau's   (843) 
1916  work  on  Africa;  koudenko  (678)   published  in  Paris  1914,   a  study  of  different 
portions    of  Siberia.      In  1915  Pittard  published  three  studies   (604-606)    on  the 
Jews  and  Turks,   on  the  Jews   of  Dobrodja  and  on  the  races   of  the  Balkan  peninsula. 

(5)  Norwegian.     The  principal  Norwegian  investigators   of  this    subject 
are  A.  Daae   (187)   1906,   and  H.  Daae   (187-189)   1909. 

(6)  Italian.     In  Italy  studies  from  the  anthropological  point  of  view 
have  been  made  by  Bresciani-Turroni   (120)   1913,   on  different  regions  in  Italy; 
Guiffrida-Ruggeri  (296)   1915,   Oriental  Africa. 

(7)  Russian.     Among  the   important  kussian  studies  are  those  of  Blagovi- 
doff  (76)   1886,   on  the  Mongolian  Asiatic  races;   and  Szepessi   (798)   1897,   on  the 
1/kgyars.     So  many  Russian  dissertations  within  this  field  are  inaccessible  that 
no  direct   comparison  can  be  made  here. 

(8)  Japanese.     Almost  the   only  Japanese   investigations  undertaken  pri- 
marily from  the  anthropological  point   of  view  are  those  by  Kubo  (452-454)   1912- 
1918,   on  the  Chinese  and  on  the  Koreans. 

(9)  Dutch.     In  the  Netherlands  contributions  have  been  made  by  Nieuwenhui 
(551)   1903  and  Witt   (884)   Netherlands. 

(10)  South  American.     The  beginning  of  anthropometric  work  in  South 
America  is  represented  by  a  study  of  Cassenilli   (162)   1917-18,    on  Argentina. 

B.      (HjLCWTH  OF  ANIMALS  AND  LAN 

Few  studies  have  been  made   on  the  relationship  between  the  growth  of 
animals  and  human  beings,  but  those  that  have  been  made  are  significant,  and  full 
of  scientific  data.     An  early  contribution  was  published  by  Menard  (517)   1885, 
Donaldson  (214)   1906,  made  a  comparison  between  the  white  rat  and  man  v/ith 
respect   to  the  growth  of  the  entire  body,  and  further  studies  are  in  progress; 


-46- 

4.  ANTHROPOLOGICAL  INVESTIGATIONS 

A.  NATIONAL  CONTRIBUTIONS  ON  RACIAL  DIFFERENCES 

No  attempt  will  be  made  in  this  section  of  the  historical  sunrary  to 
give  an  exhaustive  account  of  the  anthropological  studies  on  the  physique  of 
different  races,  but  note  will  be  made  of  the  most  significant  investigations 
classified  according  to  their  place  of  piablication,  and  the  tables  in  Part  V 
will  give  the  data  for  comparative  studies  in  racial  development  for  the  reader 
who  is  concerned  with  this  phase  of  human  development. 

(1)  English.  Numerous  important  contributions  have  been  published  in 
England.  Brent  (118)  1844,  made  before  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  a  comparison  of  men  at  different  epochs  in  different  countries. 
In  the  following  year  tables  were  presented  (119)  showing  the  height,  weight 

and  strength  of  man.  Quetelet  (629  and  630)  1846  and  1847,  presented  a  study 
of  some  Ojib-be-was  Indians,  in  1848  (631)  a  discussion  on  the  Egyptians, 
Romans  and  Indians  and  in  1854  (632)  a  study  of  the  proportions  of  the  black 
race. 

Thomson  (816)  in  1853  published  some  observations  on  New  Zealand ers. 
In  1861  Beddoe  (44)  discussed  the  physical  characteristics  of  Jews  before  the 
Ethnological  Society  of  London,  in  1870  (45)  reported  on  the  stature  and  bulk 
of  men  in  the  British  Isles,  and  1897-98  made  a  study  with  Moore  (537). 

Other  important  articles  are  by:  Shortt  (751)  1863,  a  comparative 
study  of  Europeans  rind  some  natives  of  India;  Brigham  (124)  1866,  a  study  of 
Chinese.  Farr  (245}  1880,  and  Galton  (284)  1884-85,  data  on  the  English  race; 
Forbes  (257)  1884-85,  on  the  Rubers  of  Sumatra,  Garson  (290)  1890,  further  data 
of  the  anthropometric  committee  on  which  Farr  and  Galton  worked;  Haddon  (337) 
1897,  comparative  study  on  the  inhabitants  of  Barley,  Hertz;  Gregor  (318)  1897, 
comparative  study  of  Galloway  folk  in  vVightshire  and  Kirkenbright shire;  Grfln- 
baum  (326)  1897,  on  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  inhabitants  of  Baring- 
ton  and  Foxton  in  Cambridgeshire;  Taylor  (803)  1897,  on  the  inhabitants  of 
Check-heaton,  Yorkshire;  Browii  (127)  1897,  inhabitants  of  Clara  Island,  Ireland; 
Meyers  (545-547)  1905-08,  on  Egyptians;  Rasmussen  (647)  1908-09,  Eskimos; 
Orensteen  (566)  1915-17,  detailed  individual  studies  of  Egyptian  prisoners 
from  Cairo;  Craig1  s  080)  earlier  use  of  this  same  Egyptian  material  in  1911; 
Talbot  (799)  1916,  some  central  Sudan  tribes;  Seligman  (747)  1917,  physical 
characters  of  the  Arabs. 

(2)  German.  In  Germany  there  have  been  fewer  anthropological  studies 
made  primarily  for  "  the  purpose  of  finding  racial  difft?rences.  l.'any  anthropo- 
metrical  observations  have  been  made  by  members  of  e  peditions  for  other  scien- 
tific purposes.  As  examples,  may  be  mentioned  the  work  of  Schwarz  (735)  1862, 
And  mill erst or f-Urbair  (896)  1857-59.  Other  studies  have  been  made  by  Schultz 
(728)  1845,  on  Rus  ian  Jews  and  Negroes;  Scherzer  and  Schwarz  (699)  1859, 
Vienna;  Ecker  (227)  1876,  Baden;  Kirchhoff  (438)1892-93,  comparative  studies 

of  the  Germans;  Stratz  (787)  1898,  Java;  Hagen  (338)  1901,  Chinese;  Ranke  (642) 
1906,  Brazil;  Lipiec  (478  and  479)  1912,  Jews;  Schiff  (701)  1914,  Jews  from 
Jerusalem;  Weissenberg  (859,  863,  866)  1895,  1909,  and  1914,  Armenians  and  Jews; 
Radlauer  (638)  1914-15,  the  Somali;  Schlaginhaufen  (711)  1914,  New  Guinea; 


-48- 


Friedenthal  (267-272)  1909  and  1911,  published  curves  on  the  growth  of  man  and 
other  animals,  indicating  great  similarity  between  man  and  the  anthropoid  ape, 
and  in  1914  summarized  much  work  in  his  large  volume  (274),  Haustein,  1916, 
(359)  discussed  devices  for  representing  the  growth  of  man  and  animals  by 
measurements  and  drawings. 

C.   MILITARY  STUDIES 

The  measurement  of  recruits  of  the  army  and  navy  has  always  held  a 
prominent  place  in  the  development  of  physical  anthropometry,  and  several  millicn 
individuals  have  been  measured  in  various  countries, 

France.   Considering  first  the  army,  it  is  found  that  the  first  modern 
study  was  that  of  Villerme  (847)  in  1829,  who  made  a  careful  study  of  the  height 
of  conscripts  in  the  French  service.  In  1863  Boudin  (107)  published  a  compara- 
tive ethnological  study,  later  followed  by  Chervin  (167)  1896,  Kerz  (520)  1901, 
and  Kirkoff  (439)  1906. 

England.  Aitken  (2)  1862,  published  studies  on  the  growth  of  the 
young  British  soldier;  the  British  Army  Medical  Department  (125)  reports  for 
1894,  1895,  and  1901,  contain  important  material.  Jtyers*  (546)  measurements 
of  Egyptian  recruits  appeared  in  1906.  A  Physical  Census  in  England  its  Lesson 
(11)  which  appeared  anonymously  in  1918,  analysed  the  data  on  drafted  men  in 
the  recent  war. 

America.  One  of  the  earliest  military  studies  in  America  was  Elliott's 
(230)  analysis  in  1863,  of  the  physical  measurements  of  soldiers  in  the  American 
army  of  the  Potomac.  The  most  exhaustive  studies  in  America  were  those  of 
Gould  (311)  1869,  Baxter  (39)  1875,  Sternberg  (779)  1893,  and  Beyer  (64)  1896. 
French  (265)  1885,  and  Dun  (225)  1887,  made  a  special  study  of  the  police  standard 
In  1918  Hoffman  (391)  presented  a  study  on  men  rejected  for  military  service. 
In  1919  Ireland,  Love  and  Davenport  (412)  showed  the  results  of  the  physical 
examination  of  men  sent  to  mobilization  comps,  and  in  1920  Davenport  and  Love 
(200)  discussed  defects  found  in  drafted  men  in  the  recent  world  war. 

Germany.  German  military  authropometry  is  represented  by  a  number  of 
investigations  from  the  time  of  Ranke  (643)  in  1881.  He  was  followed  by  Ammon 
(7  and  8)  1890  and  1894,  Hultkrantz  (407)  1896,  Brandt  (116)  1898,  von  Schierning 
(710)  1910,  Kulka  (455)  1912,  and  Drontschilow  (218)  1914.  Special  interest 
has  been  shown  in  the  possibility  of  using  indices  as  means  for  the  physical 
examination  of  recruits.   Schwiening  (738-740)  1908,  1909,  and  1914,  advocated 
the  use  of  Pignetfs  formula,  and  Oeder  (558)  1914,  discussed  his  work.  Eulen- 
b erg  (242)  1910,  found  Pignet f s  formula  unsuitable  for  individual  cases.  Ott 
(571)  1911,  and  Simon  (760)  1912,  used  the  formula,  while  Seyffarth  (749)  1911, 
considered  it  useful  for  rapid  surveys. 

Russia,  Italy,  Norway,  Denmark.  Forssberg  (259)  1897,  Starkow  (774) 
1897,  Yatsuta  (899)  1914,  made  important  Russian  investigations.  Livi's  (48l) 
Italian  article  appeared  in  1894.  In  Norway  there  is  Koren's  study  (447)  1901; 
and  in  Denmark  Ma ckeprang's  (494)  investigation,  1907-11. 

Naval  cadets.  j\mong  the  important  studies  of  naval  cadets  are  those 
of  Morskoi  (540)  1871.  Gihon  (293)  1880,  Cordeiro  (177)  1887,  Beyer  (61-64) 
1893-1896,  7,illiams  (881)  1902,  and  Solhaug  (766)  1920. 


-49- 

5.  GROWTH  OF  INFANTS 

The  first  studies  in  anthropometric  measurements  of  infants 
were  those  of  Roederer  (670)  in  1753,  Clarke  (172)  1786,  and  Pfannkueh 
(58%)   1874. 

A,  TREND  OF  GROWTH  CURVES 

Quetelet's  (628)  comprehensive  survey  of  human  development  in 
1836  included  the  growth  of  babies.  Just  as  this  investigator  failed  to 
discover  the  sex  differences  in  the  growth  of  older  children,  owing  perhaps 
to  having  determined  too  few  points  on  the  growth  curve,  so  also  there  was 
no  recognition  of  the  exceedingly  steep  rise  in  the  early  part  of  the  curve 
during  infancy,  Quetelet  seems  to  have  been  under  the  impression  that  this 
curve  was  a  straight  line  connecting  three  points  for  which  measurements 
had  been  taken;  birth,  twelve  months  and  twenty-four  months.  This  belief 
in  regard  to  the  first  year,  at  least,  is  expressed  as  follows  in  Recherches 
sur  le  poids  de  l'hom.-e  aux  differents  ages,  1833,  where  it  states  "Pendant 
Ta- premiere  annee  son  poids  s'accroit  regulierement,  de  telle  sorte,  qu'en 
un  son  poids  a  triple." 

B.  POSTNATAL  LOSS  IN  WEIGHT 

After  Quetelet1 s  reports,  the  problem  of  determining  the  general 
trend  of  the  growth  curves  was  neglected  for  a  number  of  years  while  investi- 
gators occupied  themselves  with  the  explanation  of  the  so-called  "physiologi- 
cal loss  of  weight"  in  the  first  few  days  of  life,  Chaussier  is  credited 
by  many  authors  with  having  been  the  first  to  discover  that  infants  lose 
weight  for  a  few  days  after  birth.  These  observations  must  have  been  made 
between  1815  and  1830,  but  nowhere  in  the  literature  is  an  exact  reference 
given.  One  of  the  earliest  accessible  studies  is  by  Hofmann  (393)  in  1849, 
In  1860  both  Breslau  (121)  and  v.  Siebold  (754)  wrote  on  the  subject.  Im- 
portant investigators  who  followed,  giving  particular  attention  to  this 
problem,  generally  from  a  medical  point  of  view,  are:   Haake  (335)  1862; 
"inckel  (8*2)  1862;  Gregory  (319)  1871;  Kezmarsky  (434)  1873;  Altherr  (6) 
1R74,  Kruger  (451)  Ingersley  (411)  and  also  Cnopf  (173)  1875,  gave  an  his- 
torical resume;  Stol]  (784)  1876;  Wolff  (886)  1883,  and  also  Biedert  (67) 
1883,  added  to  a  mere  record  of  the  phenomenon  some  consideration  of  the 
factors  that  influence  the  change  in  weight,  Wagner  (852)  1884,  and  Townsend 
9824)  1887,  continued  the  discussion  of  the  cause  of  the  loss.  Schaeffer 
(697)  1896,  presented  a  statistical  analysis  of  causes,  and  Fourmann  (262) 
1901,  a  discussion  of  causation.  They  were  followed  in  1903  by  Schulz  (729); 
Fuhrmann  (277)  1907;  Heidemann  (363),  Hirsch  (377)  Rott  (677),  Pies  (597) 
1910;  and  Orum  (568)  1914.  Benestad  (51  and  52  1913  and  1914,  published  aa 
excellent  review  of  the  literature  and  a  classification  of  factors  of  causa- 
tion under  the  head  of  insufficiency  of  metabolism.  Robertson  (665  and  666) 
1914  and  1915,  attributed  the  loss  to  mechanical  shock.  His  work  was  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  Bergmann  (54)  1916,  Schick  (700)  1917  and  Hammett  (344)  1918, 
the  last  of  whom  found  the  loss  to  be  a  function  of  birth  weight.  Other 
recent  writers  are  Kirstein  (441  and  442)  1917  and  1918,  Huverschmidt  (36D) 
1917,  and  Ramsey  and  Alley  (641)  1918. 


-50- 

Many  of  these  writers  noted  simply  the  phenomenon  of  loss  by 
daily  weighing  of  infants.  Others  attempted  to  account  for  the  loss  by 
an  analysis  of  the  physical  and  mechanical  factors  influencing  weight, 
and  the  development  of  a  better  technique  of  weighing  with  reference  to 
time  of  day,  consumption  of  food,  loss  of  organic  products,  etc.  As  a 
lengthy  discussion  of  these  factors  is  beyond  the  province  of  this  work 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  thorough  treatment  of  Benestad  (52) 

C.   GENERAL  VS.  INDIVIDUAL  METHODS  FOR  STUDYING  //EIGHT  AND  HEIGHT 

After  the  early  interest  in  the  problems  of  fluctuations  in 
weight,  the  attention  of  scientific  writers  was  turned  to  the  determination 
of  the  general  curve  of  growth  for  infants.  Probably  the  first  systematic 
attempt  to  find  average  weights  for  every  month  in  the  first  year  of  life 
was  made  by  Bouchaud  (106)  in  1864.  This  line  of  work  was  continued  by 
Fleischmanr.  (254)  1877,  whose  article  is  of  interest  historically  as  an 
early  example  of  the  "individualizing  method"  with  its  insistence  upon 
following  the  same  individuals  throughout  the  period  observed,  instead  of 
making  a  few  determinations  and  interpolating  values  according  to  some 
formula  in  the  runner  that  diverted  Quetelet  from  the  main  problem.  The 
individualizing  method  occurs  only  very  rearely  in  the  literature.  Most 
of  the  workers  on  this  problem  of  the  total  growth  curve  have  used  the 
method  of  averages;  many  have  combined  males  and  females,  and  practically 
none  give  average  deviations • 

Early  writers  had  noted  as  a  characteristic  change  in  the  rate 
of  growth  a  general  slowing  down,  shown  by  a  rapid  fall  in  the  curve  of 
increments  after  the  first  year,  and  had  emphasized  the  importance  of  sex 
differences.  An  early  study  by  the  individualizing  method  was  made  by 
Woronichin  (894)  1880-81,  In  the  study  of  the  general  growth  curve,  the 
technique  of  the  individualizing  method  was  developed  to  a  relatively  high 
degree  by  Camerer,  senior.  In  1880  Camerer  (144)  published  a  short  study 
of  infant  weight;  in  1882  he  (145)  extended  Vierodt's  collection  of  cases 
from  the  literature  and  added  data  from  his  own  practice;  in  1893  he  (146) 
reviewed  the  results  and  in  1899  his  son  (150)  presented  a  summary  of  283 
cases.  In  1901  Camerer  senior  (148)  published  the  original  tables  for  119 
of  these  cases.  Karnitzky  (422)  1908  and  King  (437)  1910,  also  reported 
measurements  by  the  individualizing  method  on  particular  children. 

Other  much  less  extensive  studies  by  the  generalizing  method 
-ere  published  as  follows:   Odier  (554)  1863;  Uffelmann  (830)  1881;  Pfeiffer 
(591)  1884;  Horse  (539)  1886-87;  Chaille  (164)  1886-87;  Peterson  (588)  1887- 
Lorey  (486)  1888;  Voute  (851)  1895-96;  ten  Siethoff  (757)  and  Graanboom  (312) 
1899;  Perret  and  Planehon  (587)  1904;  Ausset  (22)  1904;  Fleischner  (255) 
1906;  Lascoux  (464)  1908;  Eeubner  (375)  1911  (general  summary);  Friedenthal 
(270)  1911;  Ifayet  (512)  1912;  Pooler  (609)1913;  Robertson  (669)  1916- 
Broudic  (126)  1919;  and  Faber  (244)  1920.  A  recent  undated  collection  of 
measurements  by  Crum  (185)  contains  fairly  reliable  assembled  average  stand- 
ards beginning  at  six  months. 

The  early  literature  contained  very  few  studies  on  the  height 
of  infants.  In  1860  von  Siebold  (754)  gave  the  birth  length,  together 
with  the  weight,  but  it  was  not  until  1881  that  a  table  by  Hess  (374)  includ- 
ed a  few  determinations  of  height  in  the  continuous  series  of  measurements 


-51- 

of  a  child  from  birth  to  two  years.   Schenk  (726)  1880  gave  the  birth  length 
of  300  cases,  and  Mrs.  Hall  (342)  1896-97,  gave  height  measurements  for  ore 
case  throughout  one  year.  Camerer  almost  always  reported  height  as  well  as 
weight  in  his  studies.  Fleischner  (255)  1906,  related  weight  to  height  and 
other  measurements.  Lascoux  (464)  1908,  Marat  (512)  and  Crum  (185)  gave 
height  measurements.  Breslau  (122)  1862,  was  interested  in  sex  differences 
in  head  circuii-f erence.  Of  special  studies  concerning  the  interrelationship 
of  various  measurements  during  growth,  that  of  Zeltner  (909)  1911,  is  an  ex- 
ample. In  1914  Llontague  and  Hollingworth  (530)  made  a  comparative  study  of 
the  variability  of  the  sexes  at  birth  and  found  no  inherent  sex  differences. 

D.   INFLUENCE  OF  NUTRITION  ON  GROWTH 

In  addition  to  these  general  investigations  of  growth  in  weight 
and  height,  a  number  of  significant  studies  were  made  on  the  effect  of  spec- 
ial conditions,  among  which  diet  early  received  scientific  consideration. 
The  first  work  upon  this  phase  of  the  subject  seems  to  have  been  done  by 
Coudreau  (178)  1869.  He  was  followed  by  Faye  (247)  1874,  and  by  Ahlfeldt 
(1)  1878.  The  individualizing  method  was  used  in  this  field  by  Camerer  and 
Hartmann  (153)  1878.  Their  work  furnished  determinations  actually  made 
(and  in  a  few  cases  calculated)  for  every  day  of  the  first  year  of  an  indivi- 
dual infant's  life.  This  new  point  of  view  is  exemplified  also  in  the  study 
of  Hahner,  (339)  1880,  who  vreighed  an  infant  before  and  after  each  feeding 
to  determine  the  exact  amount  of  food  taken,  with  the  resulting  effect  on 
gro\vth  during  the  first  year. 

The  problem  of  the  relative  advantages  of  breast  and  artificial 
feeding  come  to  the  foreground  in  such  work  as  that  of  Russow  (680)  1881 
and  Sakuragi  (6B5)  1908.  Philippson  (596)  1913,  gave  weight  curves  for 
artificially  fed  infants,  and  Sieveking  (758)  1914-15,  published  tables  for 
both  the  breast  and  artificially  fed.  Contrary  to  Russow1  s  findings  in  re- 
gard to  the  superior  development  of  breast  fed  infants,  Hillenberg  (376) 
1912-13,  and  Variot  and  Fliniaux  (840)  1914,  reported  only  a  small  differ- 
ence between  the  breast  fed  and  the  artificially  fed. 

For  the  numerous  articles  on  the  caloric  requirements  of  infants, 
Oppenheimer1 s  (565)  1901,  may  serve  as  an  example.  Other  'works  on  the  rela- 
tion between  nutrition  and  growth  have  been  published  by  Rubner  (679), 
Muhlmann  (541)  1910,  Langstein  (462),  Meyer  (522)  and  Schloss  (717)  —  all 
1912;  Bamberg  (31),  Brady  (115),  Herman  (367),  Jaschke  (417)  1913;  Opitz 
(562)  1914,  Schute  (731)  1915.  Within  the  last  few  years  a  fertile  field 
of  investigation  has  been  opened  by  the  discovery  of  the  special  growth- 
stimulating  properties  of  certain  diets.  Hammett  and  McNeile  (343)  1917, 
observed  the  effect  of  the  mother's  ingestion  of  dessicated  placenta  in 
hastening  the  infant's  recovery  from  the  postnatal  decline  in  weight. 

The  work  of  Daniels  and  Byfield  (195  and  141)  1919-20,  showed  the 
effect  of  the  anti-neuritic  vitamin  in  stimulating  growth.  Among  general 
treatises  on  the  relation  between  nutrition  and  growth  processes,  both  nor- 
mal and  pathological,  might  be  mentioned  those  of  v.d.  Bergh  (53)  1893, 
Marfan  (501)  1899,  Judson  and  Gittings  (419)  1902,  Schloss  (715-717)  1910, 
1911,  and  1912,  and  Langstein  and  I.'eyer  (463)  1914.  The  handbooks  of  Holt 
(396)  and  of  Griffith  (321  and  323)  have  gone  through  numerous  editions  with- 
in the  last  decade. 


-52- 

E.  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  GROWTH 

Studies  of  the  effect  of  pathological  conditions  on  height  made 
by  Variot  (835-857)  1907  and  1908,  showed  that  a  "dissociation  of  growth" 
might  take  place  with  a  continuous  increase  in  height,  although  weight  was 
seriously  affected;  Freund  (266)  1909,  corroborated  this;  Birk  (75)  1911, 
found,  however,  that  with  very  young  children  height  was  unfavorably  affect- 
ed. Stolte  (785)  1913,  and  Aron  (16)  1914,  also  found  height  to  be  somewhat 
affected,  though  less  so  than  weight, 

Hess  (373)  1915-17  showed  the  effect  of  antiscorbutic  diets  on 
weight  in  infantile  scurvy.  Eddy  and  Roper  (228)  1917,  stimulated  growth 
in  cases  of  marasmus  by  the  use  of  pancreatic  vitamin.  The  work  of  Daniels 
and  Byfield  (195  and  141)  1919-20,  has  already  been  mentioned.  At  the  present 
time  it  seems  probably  that  a  significant  advance  in  knowledge  concerning 
growth  is  hortly  to  be  made  in  this  field. 

F.  INFLUENCE  OF  SFECIAL  CONDITIONS  ON  GROWTH 

Among  other  special  conditions  whose  relation  to  growth  has  been 
studied,  are  dentition—  Vforonichin  (894)  1880-81;  military  fitness  of  father— 
Schmid-Mcnnard  (718 J  1892;  institution  vs.  family  life—  Freeman  (2 6TJ  1914; 
season— Bleyer  (77)  1917;  war  conditions— Brflning  TT29)  1918,  Pollak  (608) 
1918,  and  Hoffman  (392)  1T5T8". 

A  number  of  writers  have  reported  birth  measurements  in  relation 
to  special  problems:  Among  these  are:  the  age  of  the  mother  --  Hecker  (361) 
1865;  Faye  and  Vogt  (249)  1866;  Stockton-HougTi  ( Y8"3TT885-86 ;  Lange-Nielsen 
(461)  1918;  nationality  —  Okamato  (560)  1894;  Robertson  (667)  1915;  order 
of  birth  —  Siesel  (756)  1905;  occupation  and  social  class  of  parents  — 
letourneur  (472)  1897;  Issmer  (413)  1899;  "Fuclis  (276)  1899;""Weissenberg  (861) 
1908;  Goldfeld  (307)  1912;  Feller  (584)  1913;  length  of  pregnancy  —  Asteng> 
(19)  1905;  Christofferson  (170)  1905;  Lutz  (4897  1912;  Kjolseth  (443)  1913; 
correlations  of  measurements  —  Pearson  (576)  1900;  Poller  (585)  1917;  and 
Taylor  (805)  TSl"^ 

Birth  measurements  have  also  been  reported  bjr  Scanzoni  (695) 
1*49,  Veit  (842)  1855,  Hecker  (362)  1866,  Martin  (503)  1867,  Cnopf  (173)  1871, 
.'itzinger  (8*5)  1876,  Schtitz  (732)  1881,  Spiegelberg  (767)  1882,  Kezmarsky 
(434)  and  435)  1873-1884,  Kflrber  (446)  1884,  Schroder  (727)  1886,  Mies  (524) 
1891,  Miller  (527)  1893,  Sfameni  (750)  1901,  Warren  (857)  1917. 

G.  FOETAL.  GROWTH 

Considerable  work  has  been  done  on  foetal  growth,  but  this  problem 
is  beyond  the  province  of  our  present  discussion  and  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Jackson  (414)  1909,  and  Scamr/ion*  s  unpublished  work. 

6.  NATIONAL  CONTRIBUTIONS  ON  PHENOMENA  OF  TOTAL  GROWTH  OR  PARTIAL  GROWTH 

Studies  on  the  general  phenomena  of  physical  growth  as  surveyed 
from  the  early  work  of  Bird  (74)  1823,  may  be  differentiated  into  innumerable 
problems  and  sub-problems.  In  the  main  the  object  has  been  to  determine  how 


-54- 

on  the  growth .of  the  body  and  its  parts,  a  point  of  view  which  has  been 
consistently  emphasized  and  which  characterizes  the  most  modern  books  of 
Daffner  (193)  1902,  Ranke  (644)  1894-1900,  Weissenberg  (865(  1911,  and  of 
Hoesch-Ernst  and  Meumann  (241)  1906,  Kotelmann's  (449)  first  investigations 
bearing  on  hygiene  were  published  in  1879;  Hensen  (365)  1881,  discussed  the 
subject  from  a  physiological  point  of  view;  Daffner »s  work  began  to  appear 
in  1884  (190  and  191)  and  was  continued  by  a  publication  of  1892-93  (192). 
Two  studies  on  the  growth  of  boys  by  Landsberger  (456  and  457)  appeared  in 
1888,  ;?eitzel*8  (867)  measurements  of  girls  were  published  1890-91  at  the 
same  time  as  Wiener1 s  (879)  individual  study. 

Other  important  studies  have  been  made  by  Carstadt  (160)  1888; 
Hasse  (353)  1891;  Schmidt  (724)  1892;  Camerer  (146)  1893;  Weissenberg  (859) 
1895;  Hergel  (366)  1897;  Monti  (532)  1898;  Salomon  (686)  1898;  Schmid-Monnard 
(722  and  723)  1900  and  1901;  Rietz  (657)  1903;  Reuter  (653)  1903.  Ranke  (645 
and  646)  1905;  Stratz  (788-794)  1908,  1911,  1912,  1914  and  1915; 'schwerz  (736 
and  737)  1911  and  1912;  Wagner  (853)  1911;  Ascher  (18)  1912;  Peiper  (582  and 
583)  1911  and  1912;  Cohn  (174)  1912;  Riedel  (656)  1913;  Munch  (544)  1914- 
Skibinski  (763)  1914;  Matusiewiez  (508)  1914;  Guttmann  (334)  1915;  and  Sch- 
lesinger  (713  and  714)  1917. 

An  important  collection  of  tables  from  various  sources  was  published 
by  Vierordt  (846)  in  1906.  Bachauer  and  Lamport  (23)  1919,  proposed  a  compre- 
hensive program  for  a  system  of  measurements  on  children. 

(5)  Russia.  In  Russia  much  valuable  anthropometric  work  has  been 
done,  but  as  previously  stated,  only  a  limited  number  of  investigations  have 
been  accessible,  and  no  doubt  during  the  last  few  years  a  large  number  of  these 
may  have  been  destroyed.  Many  valuable  studies  are  in  the  form  of  Doctor's 
dissertations  which  are  filed  in  the  archives  of  various  libraries  and  have  been 
referred  to  principally  through  the  work  of  Sack  and  Wiazemsky,  who  seldom  give 
the  exact  title,  number  of  papge3,  date  or  place  of  publication. 

Vassiliev  (841)  published  an  early  study  on  girls,  1881.  In  1882 
Dudrewiez  (223)  made  anthropometrical  measurements  of  children  in  .Varsaw;  Diek 
(210)  1883,  made  a  more  comprehensive  study  and  in  1886  Belaiew  (47)  studied 
the  children  of  Simbirsk.  Other  studies  are  as  follows:  in  1887  Suligowski 
(796)  pupils  ii  Radom;  in  1890  Sograf  (765)  in  Jaroslav,  Kostroma  and  Vladimir 
provinces;  in  1890  Milailow  (526)  Moscow;  in  1892  Grinevski  (324)  Odessa-  in 
1892  and  1893  Sack  (681-684)  Moscow;  in  1894  Vinogradorsk-Lukersk  (849)  general 
study  of  high  school  pupils;  in  1895  Matveyeva  (509)  St.  Petersburg;  in  1896 
Tezyakoff  (809)  in  Yelisavetgr ad  County;  in  1900  Rostovtsev  (674)  in  Dmitrovak; 
in  1902  Bondyrew  (105);  in  1903  Karnikki  (421);  in  1905  Pismennry  (602)  Ser- 
pukhor  County.  Gundobin's  (331)  book  on  the  characteristics  of  childhood,  was 
published  in  1905,  Wlaiemsky'a  (878)  Paris  dissertation  on  physical  growth  6f 
Russian  children  appeared  in  1907,  Berlinerblau' s  (57)  study  of  an  orphanage, 
Moscow,  1908,  Gruzdeff's  (327)  1912,  and  Gorokhoff's  (310),  1916.  AnutschL's 

14  j  general  study  of  the  male  population  of  Russia  and  Her eshoff sky's  (518) 
on  the  development  of  children,  appeared  prior  to  Sack's  dissertation,  1892, 
where  they  are  cited  without  dates.  ' 

(6)  Italy,  in  Italy  an  early  investigation  from  the  sociological 
?£ I**  A  m\*"  T  m^6  ^  PaSliani  <573  ™*   574)  1875-76  and  1879.  The  Bertillon 
•  1     f?  ?  }.    sptem  of  criminal  measurement  was  described  in  French  in  1889  and 
msnglish  in  1896.  The  chief  pedagogical  studies  have  been  made  by  Santori 


-55- 
(688)  1907,  and  Montessori  (531)  1913. 

(7)  China  and  Japan*  An  anthropometric  study  of  Chinese 
students  was  made  by  Merrins  (519)  1910,  With  a  view  to  developing 
norms  for  the  Chinese  race,  the  Medical  Missionary  Association  has 
initiated  anthropometric  investigations,  the  first  results  of  which 
were  reported  by  Whfrte  (875-876)  1917  and  1918.  Pyle  (625)  published 
in  America,  1918  ,  a  comparison  between  American  and  Chinese  children. 
In  Japan  three  very  important  studies  have  been  made  by  Miwa  (529) 
1893,  of  individuals  from  three  to  80  years;  Misawa  (528)  1909,  made 
a  study  of  869,014  children;  and  Hatta  (358)  recently  made  a  report 
on  786  Japanese  boys.  A  comparative  study  of  Japanese  and  Chinese 
children  appeared  in  1903,  by  Wood  (887).  At  the  American  University 
at  Fekin,  Cowdry  is  beginning  work  under  the  direction  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  at  Washington. 

(8)  Spain.  Little  work  has  been  done  in  Spain,  but  reference 
should  be  made  to  the  work  of  Arthaud  (17)  in  1895. 

(9)  Norway  Sweden  and  Denmark.  Studies  of  the  growth  of 
the  Scandinavian  people  have  been  made  in  Norway  by  Faye  (248)  1914 
Schiotz  (704-709)  1917,  and  Zeiner-Hendriksen  (903  and  904)  1918  and 
1920;  in  Sweden  by  Tfietlind  (880)  1878;  Tornell  (823)  1909  and  by 
Sundell  (797)  1917.  In  Denmark  the  years  1907-11  saw  a  number  of 
investigations  by  Hansen  (347),  Rambusch  (640)and  Hertz  (371). 

(10)  Netherlands.  In  the  Netherlands  a  study  of  the  height 
of  males  was  made  in  1910  by  Bolk  (104);  a  more  general  study  of  the 
male  population  in  1916  by  Benders  (49);  and  an  investigation  of  the 
weight  of  children  by  Van  der  Loo  (485),  1919. 

(11)  K^land.  In  Finland  an  important  study  by  Oker-Blom 
(561)  appeared  in  1912. 

(12)  America,   (a)  School  Children.  The  interest  in  peda- 
gogical anthropometry  which  has  had  such  an  influence  on  school 
administration  probably  began  in  America  with  Bowditch's  (109  and 
110)  reports  to  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health,  1875  and  1879  in 
which  were  analysed  the  statistics  on  thousands  of  school  children  to 

?or\heee^vT  °f  nf^nality  «*  sooial  'lass.  Equally  fundamental 
for  the  establishment  of  the  new  concept  of  the  growth  process  were 
reports  on  the  physique  of  women  (112)  1890,  and 'on  the  growth  of 
children  studied  by  Galton's  percentile  grades  (113)  1891.  Later  worV 
was  that  of  Peckham  (580  and  581)  1881  an^  1882  whose  re^ortf  to  The 

TnSlR°R7^  Td  °f  ?ealth  inClUd6d  many  Valuable  ^atistics  on  growth, 
in  ^8^StePhe"son  <777)  Polished  a  brief  account  of  the  rate  of  growth 
in  children.   Greenwood's  Kansas  City  studies  (317)  1890  to  1892,  gave 
the  height  and  weight  of  a  large  number  of  children.   Boas'  (82) 
Worcester  study,  1892,  discovered  some  important  differences  in  the 

5£)  in  l^ubf  b°ld\r',Td  °5  tal1  ^  Sh°rt  °hildren-   '"*•» 
«tlfil  I         I     Polished  table*  of  the  measurements  of  Easthampton 

nS*  Barnes  s  (35)  California  study,  1892-93  showed  that  Oakland 
children  surpassed  in  physical  development  children  from  other  locali- 
ties studied  up  to  this  time.  Moon  (533-535)  presented  brief  studies 
of  Maryland  boys,  1892  and  1896.  Porter's  (611-615)  St.  Louis  studies 
appreared  1892  to  1894. 


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-57- 

on  the  forms  of  the  head  and  Boas  (87)  1897,  with  a  discussion  of 
Ripley's  article,  Roshdestwensky  (673)  1897,  Binet  (69)  1901,  on  the 
growth  of  head  and  face,  Teumin  (808)  1902,  Manouvrier  (500)  1902, 
Pfitsner  (595)  1903,  Seggel  (744  and  745)  1903,  Wissler  (883)  1903, 
Rose  (672)  1905,  Laumonier  (466)  1909,  Weissenberg  (862  and  864)  1909  and 
1910. 

Among  recent  correlation  studies  are  those  by  Alfeyeff  (4) 
1912,  weight,  height  and  chest  measurements;  Weisse  (858)  1912,  chest 
«nd  abdominal  measurements  in  relation  to  build;  Downes  (217)1913-14, 
trunk  measurements  and  stature;  Levy,  Magnan  and  Sellet  (473)  1914, 
height  and  check  circumference;  V/alker  (854)  1915,  relation  of  weight 
to  body  length.  Baldwin  has  presented  in  this  Study,  pages  117  to  148 
numerous  coefficients  of  correlation  for  physical  measurements. 


C.  PERIODS  OF  GROWTH. 

Attempts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  by  various  investi- 
gators to  divide  the  growth  process  into  periods  or  stages  odf  develop- 
ment. Bryan  (132)  1900,  has  given  a  review  of  such  attempts  and  dis- 
cussed the  significance  of  such  stages  in  growth.  It  is,  however,  very 
undesirable  to  try  to  divide  the  years  of  average  growth  in  any  such 
manner  as  was  attempted  by  Vierordt,  Liharzik,  Zeising  or  Key,  since 
growth  is  a  continuous  process  with  no  abrupt  step  from  stage  to  stage, 
Individual  and  sex  differences  and  variations  in  growth  due  to  physiolog- 
ical maturity,  heredity  and  racial ,  social  and  individual  type  still 
further  complicate  the  problem.  It  is  still  an  open  question  whether  it 
will  be  possible  with  adequate  data  consisting  of  repeated  measurements 
on  a  sufficient  number  of  children  for  a  considerable  period  of  time  to 
outline  such  periods  in  the  growth  of  normal  children. 


7.  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  GROWTH 
A.  CLIMATE  AND  32AS0N. 

Few  definite  scientific  data  are  available  concerning  the 
influence  of  season  and  climate  on  physical  growth,  since  the  problem 
is  a  difficult  one  to  solve  without  consecutive  measurements  on  the 
same  group  of  in  ividuals.  In  1875  Baxter  (39)  made  an  important  study 
for  the  Provost  General's  Bureau,  which  showed  that  the  size  of  adult 
Americans  is  different  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  this 
being  attributed  to  the  influence  of  climate  on  growth.  The  best  work 
was  started  by  Malling-Hansen  (497)  1883,  in  which  an  exhaustive  and 
careful  treatment  v;as  made  of  periodicity  in  the  weight  of  children  who 
were  measured  daily.  This  article  was  followed  by  an  address  before  an 
international  medical  congress  at  Copenhagen  on  the  effects  of  change 
of  diet  on  growth  at  different  times  of  the  year  (498).  In  1886  Malling- 
Hansen  (499)  published  a  somewhat  fantastic  treatise  on  variations  in 
weight  coincident  with  variations  in  the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays,  in 
which  it  was  found  that  for  weight  the  greatest  growth  was  from  August 
to  the  middle  of  September  and  the  least  during  May,  June  and  July, 
v/hile  for  height  the  reverse  was  true.  Voit  (850)  1886  and  Zacharias 
(901)  1889,  discussed  these  results.  Vahl  (832)  1884,  discovered,  for 

children  in  a  girls'  school  weighted  semi-annually  from  1874  to  1883,  that 


-58- 

there  was  a  greater  increase  in  weight  in  summer  than  in  winter. 
Schraid-Monnard  (719  and  720)  1895  and  1896,  found  Mall ing-Hans en's 
"periods"  characteristic  of  German  children.  Gray  (315)  1910,  published 
his  Diurnal  Variations  in  Weight  as  a  Bachelor's  thesis;  Makower  (496) 
1914,  substantiated  theHSchmid-Monnard  thesis  by  a  study  of  400  Jewish 
children;  Orum  (568)  found  seasonal  variations  in  weight,  1914;  Lentz 
(470)  1917,  showed  that  for  German  children  April,  May  and  September 
were  best  for  general  health,  while  November  and  December  were  worst. 

Hall  (340)  auot es  Zak  (Sack?)  as  finding  height  decreasing 
during  the  day  and  weight  increasing,  and  Vierordt  (845)  found  weekly 
or  half  weekly  periods  repeating  themselves.  Pittard  (603)  1906,  also 
discussed  the  influence  of  geographical  milieu  upon  height.  Porter's 
(618)  investigation  in  1920  shows  that  for  American  children  the  increase 
in  weight  is  greater  from  June  to  December  than  from  December  to  June. 


B.  EFFECTS  OF  WAR 

In  Germany,  where  the  food  shortage  was  especially  acute, 
school  physicians  and  health  authorities  have  undertaken  numerous 
investigations  to  discover  whether  the  growth  and  nutrition  of  children 
were  suffering.  Some  of  these  reports  are  documents  of  a  political  and 
controversial  nature,  but  a  certain  number  are  deserving  of  scientific 
attention.  The  studies  made  in  1916  by  Haberlin  (336),  Schlesinger 
(712),  Lommel  (483  and  484),  Gohde  (306)  and  Thiele  (811)  showed  that 
no  harmful  effects  of  the  food  shortage  had  yet  become  apparent. 
Herzog  (372)  1916,  and  Engelhorn  (236)  in  the  same  year,  even  claimed 
was  children  to  be  in  somewhat  better  condition,  proably  because  of  the 
war  time  emphasis  on  hygiene  and  the  more  sensible  diet.  These  results 
were  confirmed  for  1917  by  Oschraann  (570)  and  Lubsen  (487)  and  for 
1919  by  SiegmundSchultze  (755)  and  Poetter  (607).  Other  investigators 
showed,  however,  that  especially  during  the  later  years  of  the  war,  bad 
conditions  were  beginning  to  have  their  effect.  Kettner  (429)  found 
that  as  early  as  1915  a  decrease  in  the  growth  of  children  was 
apparent  and  Engelhorn  (237)  1916-17,  discovered  that  city  children 
were  in  somewhat  poorer  condition  than  during  the  second  year  of  the 
war.  Davidsohn  (202)  1920,  found  a  decrease  in  growth  antf  Pfaundler  as 
reported  in  an  anonymous  editorial  (12)  in  1919  showed  that  boys  and 
girls  grew  less  during  the  war  and  that  the  average  decrease  in  gain 
was  more  conspicuous  in  children  of  professional  classes. 

Among  French  investigations  a  research  made  by  Bleyer  (78) 
for  the  American  Red  Cross  Children's  Bureau  showed  that  the  children 
of  Vienne,  a  manufacturing  town  of  France,  we»e  in  good  condition  in 
1919.  DuBois  (222)  1919,  published  some  data  on  the  children  of  Liege. 
In  England  Howard  (399)  1919,  discussed  war  bread  and  the  growth  of 
children. 


C.  SOCIAL  STATUS 

Whether  the  good  development  of  children  from  the  favored 
classes  is  due  to  environmental  influences  including  diet  and  medical 


-59- 


inspection  or  to  superior  heredity  is  a  question  that  cannot  be  settled 
with  the  data  at  hand.  The  superiority  in  development  is  the  common 
report  of  investigators.  As  early  as  1329  Villerme  (847$  848)  showed 
that  good  homes  and  good  nutrition  contribute  materially  to  physical 
growth.  Bowditch  (110)  1879,  showed  that  the  "favored  classes"  with 
good  nutrition  are  superior  to  general  classes,  especially  in  height. 
This  vie?/  was  also  held  by  Roberts  (663)  1878,  by  the  Anthropometric 
Committee  of  England  under  the  chairmanship  of  Galton  (281)  1885,  by 
the  Danish  Commission  under  Hertel  (368  and  370)  1882A  by  Geissler  and 
Uhlitzsch  (291)1888,  and  by  Geissler  (292)  1892,  by  E  ismann  (239  and 
240)  in  Russia  188=*,  and  by  Key  (430)  in  Sweden,  1885."  Stanway  (773) 
1833,  published  the  results  of  investigations  into  the  comparative 
health  and  condition  of  factory  and  non-factory  children  of  Manchester 
and  Stockport.-  Mailing-Hans en1 s  (497)  study  of  food  values  in  Copenhagen 
gave  in  genera}  negative  results.  Pagliani's  (574)  Italian  study  appeared 
in  1879.  Landsberger1 s  (457)  study  of  boys  appeared  in  1888.  Kozmowski's 
(448)  intensive  work  on  the  weight  and  growth  of  children  of  the  poorer 
classes  of  Warsaw  is  dated  1894.  From  1899  to  1902  Pfitzner  (592-594) 
published  a  series  of  "Social  Anthropologische  Studien".  Niceforo  (549) 
1903,  began  a  study  of  over  3,000  children  in  the  chools  of  Lausanne, 
classified  according  to  social  status.  Koch-Hesse  (445)  1905,  compiled 
nuch  statistical  material  from  various  investigators.   Allaria  (5)  1912, 
investigated  the  growth  of  children  of  the  poorer  classes.  Young  (900) 
1913,  found  the  children  of  the  rich  to  be  better  developed  than  children 
who  attended  public  schools.  Elderton  (229)  1914,  classified  the  meas- 
urements of  over  63,000  Glasgow  school  children  in  four  social  groups. 
Dikanski's  (211)  1914,  arrangement  of  Hoesch-Ernst' s  material  showed 
better  physical  development  with  rising  social  class.  Brezezinski  and 
Peltyn  (123)  measured  children  of  factory  xvorkmen,  1914.  Frankel  and 
Dublin  (263)  1916,  analyzed  the  measurements  of  10,000  children  who 
received  employment  certificates  in  New  York  City  during  the  previous 
year.  Schlesinger  (713  and  714)  1917,  again  proved  the  superior  devel- 
opment of  the  children  from  well-to-do  families.   The  measurements  by 
Baldwin  (27)  1914  and  this  Study,  on  children  of  the  well-to-do  class 
are  on  the  whole  extremely  high. 


D.  CITY  VS.  COUNTRY  LIFE 

Although  many  studies  of  school  children  in  and  around  certain 
cities  would  probably  permit  of  comparisons  of  the  physical  development 
of  city  and  country  children,  if  the  original  data  were  at  hand,  there 
have  been  few  studies  undertaken  directly  for  this  purpose.  The  question 
of  stature  in  the  city  and  country  population  was  discussed  by  Quetelet 
(626)  in  1830.  Galton  (279)  1873-74,  and  Feiper  (583)  1912,  found 
country  boys  to  be  both  tal"er  and  he  vier  than  city  boys.   Baldwin 
(28)  1916,  obtained  results  that  ere  in  agreement  with  this,  inasmuch 
as  it  was  found  that  country  boys  mature  earlier  than  city  boys.  Pyle 
and  Collings  (624)  1918,  found  that  there  was  a  slight  difference  in 
favor  of  city  children.  Urick  (831)  1918,  presented  statistics  on 
city  and  country  children  in  Iowa. 

Doubtless  the  Var  Departments  of  various  countries  are  in 
possession  of  much  material  on  this  point,  but  little  has  been  published. 
The  statistics  of  men  drafted  in  the  United  Sta  es  during  the  7forld  <iVar, 


-60- 


Trtiich  were  analyzed  by  Davenport  and  Love  (200),  showed  that  61,74$ 
of  urban  men  were  accepted  without  defect,  rural  66.74$,  and  that 
33.49$  of  urban  men  were  accepted  with  defect,  rural  28,30$. 


E.  HYGIENE  AND  EXERCISE 

A  great  deal  of  work  on  physical  growth  has  been  approached 
from  the  point  of  view  of  hygiene.  Measurements  of  children  have  often 
been  undertaken  in  order  that  school  desks  might  be  better  adjusted  to 
the  physique  of  the  children.   Other  studies,  especially  in  Germany  and 
Su  da,  have  been  made  with  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  effect  of 
school  conditions  on  the  physical  development  of  children.  A  third 
•-roup  deals  with  the  effect  of  exercise,  physical  training  and  college 
athletics.   Other  investigations  are  concerned  with  general  health, 
diseases  and  physical  defects. 

Many  of  the  references  on  physical  h;  giene  are  classified  under 
other  specific  subjects,  since  the  field*£*U*A}Srehensive  and  indefinite, 
but  those  of  particular  import  limited  to  the  influ  nee  of  hygienic 
conditions  are:  Hutchinson's  (4C9)  1846,  and  Pagliani's  study  (573)  1875, 
■  ■  ith  particular  reference  to  breathing  capacity;  Roberts1  (662)  factory 
report,  1876,  and  his  memorandum  on  medical  inspection  (660);  Kotelmann's 
(449)  1879,  study  on  the  influence  of  physical  taaining;  Bruun's  (131) 
study  in  hygiene,  1887;  Geissler  and  Uhlitzsch's  (291)  study  on  fitting 
school  desks,  1888;  Kellogr»s  (426)  strength  studies,  1896;  Porter1 s 
(616  and  617)  1896,  measurement*  in  schools;  Taylor's  discussion  of  the 
influence  of  exercise  upon  length  of  life  (804)  1897;  Burk's  (138) 
Influence  of  Exercise,  1899;   Burgenstein' s  (135)  Schulhygiene,  1902; 
Hastings'  [557)     Health  and  Growth  of  School  Children,  1905;   ike tche s 
of  English  school  children  by  Thomas  (815)  1905;  ZaKor's  (902)  Prague 
study,  1907;  Tyler* s  general  articles  (828  and  829)  1907  and  19C8; 
Harrington's  (348)  Health  and  Education,  1910;  ^right's  (895)  Post- 
Adolescent  Girls,  1910;  Baldwin' 's'  '('g5q)Notes  on  School  Observation,  1911; 
Py 1 e ' s  f£2<r ancf  623)  manuals  of  1913  and  1920;  Ternan's  (807)  Hygiene 
of  the  School  Child,  1914;  the  comprehensive  investigations  by  Tuxford  and 
(ilegg  (827)  1911,  including  583,640  English  children  between  three  and 
14  years  of  age;  Mumford's  (543)  1912,  Manchester  grammar  school  investi- 
gation; with  the  additional  English  studies  of  Greenwood  (316)  1915,  and 
Tuxford  (826)  1917;  Perm  (586)  1917;  and  Kerr  (427-428)  1918  and  1919, 
In  Germany  appeared  Meumann's  (521),  Experimentelle  Padagogik,  1911; 
Heller's  (364)  studies  on  Salzburg  children,  1913-14;  Steinhaus'  (776) 
1913;  Spitzy's  (771)  Die  kbrperliche  Erziehung  des  Kjndes,  1914;  and 
Matthias'  (507)  1916,  work  on  the  effect  of  physical  exercise  on  Swiss 
athletes.  Laurent's  (467)  investigation  of  physical  education  in  France; 
and  the  important  Russian  studies  cited  by  Sack,  i.e.,  Leshaft  (471) 
1879-80,  Nagorsky  (548)  1881,  Michailoff  (523)  1887,  Belyaieff  (48)  1888, 
and  Zhbankoff  (910)  1889. 


F.   SPECIAL  CONDITIONS 

A  number  of  isolated  investigations  deal  with  the  relation  between 
growth  and  other  special  conditions  not  previously  listed  in  this  resume. 


■ 




■ 

'  o  semi 


-61- 


Among  these  is  an  investigation  of  loss  of  weight  and  gain  in  height 
during  sleep,  by  Curtiss  (186)  1898.  Burk  (137)  in  1899  discussed  the 
influence  of  sex  on  growth.  Cailli  (142)  1903,  noted  the  effect  of 
country  living.  Boas  (94)  1909,  published  an  article  on  civilization 
and  stature.  The  v/ork  of  Davenport  reported  in  his  Heredity  in  Relation 

to  Eugenics  (198)  1911,  and  his  Inheritance  of  Stature  (159)  1917, 

continued  a  line  of  investigation  begun  by  Galton.  Carmon  (159)  1912, 
published  a  discussion  of  rapid  changes  in  weight.  Boas  (99)  1913, 
traced  the  effect  of  heredity  and  environment  on  growth.  Reports  on 
growth  and  dentition  were  made  by  Bean  (42)  1914,  and  Spier  (769)  1918. 
Stiles  and  Wheeler  (782)  1915,  analyzed  physical  measurements  of  American 
children  from  homes  of  good  and  poor  sanitary  condition.  Camescasse 
(155  and  156)  1918,  reported  the  results  of  an  experiment  in  which  for 
the  sake  of  economy  bread  was  replaced  by  rice  and  vegetables,  with 
good  results.  In  1919  Dick  (206)  published  in  England  his  book  on  the 
effect  of  defective  housing  on  growth.  Powys(62l)  1902,  and  Harris 
(349)  1920,  have  noted  the  decrease  in  stature  in  later  adult  life. 
Retan  (652)  and  Emerson  (234)  have  been  particularly  interested  in  the 
relation  between  nutrition  and  physical  development. 

8.   SPECIAL  AND  ABNORMAL  FHASES  OF  GROWTH 
A.  PATHOLOGICAL 

A  limited  number  of  good  scientific  studies  has  been  made  on  the 
relationship  between  growth  and  disease.  In  1881  Bowditch  (111)  asserted 
that  the  "normal  rate  of  growth  would  not  only  throw  light  on  the  diseases 
to  which  childhood  is  subject,  but  would  also  guide  us  in  the  application 
of  therapeutic  measures."  One  of  the  earliest  treatises  was  by  Regnier 
(650)  1860.  Then  came  Auboyer's  (20)  work  in  1881.  Hertel  (368)  1882, 
published  the  report  of  the  Danish  Commission  including  measurements  of 
17,695  boys  and  11,646  girls.  In  1885  appeared  his  Overpressure  in  the 

High  Schools  of  Denmark  (369),  and  in  1888  a  comparison  between  the 

findings  of  the  Danish  and  Swedish  Commissions  (370).  Key's  (430) 
important  Stockholm  study  appeared  in  1885  and  the  German  edition  in 
1889;  Michailoff's  (523)  Russian  study,  1887;  Springer's  (772)  1890- 
Carlier's  (158)  1892;  Bezy's  (66)  1894;  Combe's  (175)  investigation'in 
Lausanne,  1896;  Warner's  (856)  comprehensive  English  study,  1897; 
Schmid-Monnard's  (721)  German  study  in  1897;  Ranke's  (646)'German  study, 
1905;  Camer er's  (151)  investigation  of  malnutrition,  1905;  GunSobin's  * 
(331  and  332)  Russian  investigation  of  Basedow's  disease  on  stature, 
1909-10.  Other  important  contributions  are  Camer er's  (152)  general* 
account  of  growth  in  relation  to  disease,  translated  1908;  Baldwin's 
(25)  Notes  on  School  Observation,  1914;  Chose' s  (169)  1914  work  on 
rachitis  and  growth;  Thiele's  (810)  1915  on  tuberculosis;  Schiotz's 
(702  and  703)  articles  on  growth  and  disease,  1915  and  1916;  and  Strong's 
(795)  study  of  the  effect  of  hookworm,  1916.  Many  general  texts  on 
children's  diseases  contain  chapters  on  growth.  Among  those  not 
previously  mentioned  is  that  by  Feer  (250)  1911.  Kotz  (450)  1918-19 
discussed  the  phenomena  of  unequal  growth  of  the  two  sides  of  the  body 
and  Thoma  (814)  1918,  the  conditions  that  interfere  with  the  growth  of* 
the  head. 


1 


■ 


-62- 


B.  MENTAL  ABNORMAL ITT 

Prom  the  standpoint  of  developing  standards  for  the  physical 
growth  of  normal  boys  and  girls,  valuable  facts  have  been  obtained  through 
comparison  with  the  growth  of  feeble-minded  children.  The  first  study 
dealing  with  the  physical  growth  of  idiots  and  imbeciles  (mentally  defieiert 
children)  was  published  by  Roberts  (663)in  the  manual  on  Anthropometry, 
in  1878,  The  investigation,  which  was  probably  made  in  1*871,  included  the 
height  and  -weight  of  829  children  and  adults  between  the  ages  of  three  and 
15  years,  from  the  asylums  in  England,  without  differentiating  between  the 
sexes.  In  1877  Shuttleworth  (752)  published  in  America  a  very  good  paper 
on  the  growth  and  mentality  of  feebleminded  children.  Tarbell's  (801 
and  802)  studies  appeared  in  England,  1876-86  and  1888-89.  Wylie  (897  and 
898)  1899  to  1903,  made  careful  studies  of  400  boys  and  girls  from 
Minnesota  and  concluded  that  feeble-minded  children  were  subnormal  in 
physical  development,  while  Macdonald  (490)  1897-98,  also  found  children 
with  abnormalities  inferior  in  growth  to  children  in  general.  Binet's 
(68-71)  significant  studies  appeared  in  France  in  1900  to  1910.  A  later 
book  with  Simon  (72)  was  translated,  1914.  Simon's  (761  and  762)  studies 
appeared  1899  and  1900;  Vaney's  (833  and  834)  1906-1909,  and  Martin's 
(504)  in  1912.  Norsworthy  (553)  1906,  could  find  no  distinguishable 
differences  between  the  physical  development  of  feebleminded  and  normal 
children  compared  with  the  Boas  and  Bowditch  standards.  Guttmann  (333) 
reported  comparative  measurements  of  normal  and  abnormal  children  in  1906. 
Goddard  (297)  1912,  has  made  the  most  valuable  and  painstaking  study  within 
this  fiel£,  having  recorded  measurements  on  10,000  children  at  the  Vineland 
Training  School  in  New  Jersey  ?nd  at  eighteen  other  institutions  in  America, 
Doll  (212)  1916,  used  the  psycho-physical  measurements  of  right  and  left 
grip  and  lung  capacity  as  diagnostic  criteria  of  feeblemindedness,  and 
Porteus  (619)  1919-20,  has  been  making  careful  studies  in  cephalometry  of 
the  feeble-minded  children  at  Vineland. 

Among  the  special  studies  of  physical  development  of  the  insane, 
should  be  mentioned  Boyd»s  (114)  1861,  studies  on  2614  post-mortem  examin- 
ations. Goodall  (308  and  309)  1898  and  1901,  compared  the  development  of 
the  insane  and  the  abnormal.  Tfce  physical  development  of  delinquents  has 
not  received  much  attention,  though  several  medical  studies  have  been  made. 
The  best  work  in  the  anthropometric  field  is  that  by  Marty  (506)  1898,  and 
by  Tallant  (800)  1912. 


9.   PHYSIOLOGICAL  AGE 
A.   ADOLESCENT  GROWTH 

One  of  the  most  important  present-day  problems  in  physical  growth 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  educational,  social,  religious  ard  psychological 
development  of  the  child  centers  around  the  question  of  physiological  age, 
with  particular  reference  to  the  development  during  adolescence.  In  his 
early  work,  1890,  Key  (432)  raised  the  problem  of  "Die  Pubertatsentwicklung 
and  das  Verhaltnis  derselben  zu  den  Krankheitsercheinungen  der  Schuljugend." 
In  1891  Key  (433)  made  another  contribution  to  the  subject,  as  did  Miwa 
(529)  1993.  Morey-Errant  (538)  1898,  published  a  general  discussion 
bearing  primarily  on  puberty;  Lincoln  (477)  1896,  published  a  practical 
paper  with  some  good  observations  on  sexual  maturity;  Moon  (536)  1899, 


-63- 

nrinted  a  short  paper  with  a  discussion  of  the  question  of  growth  and 
puberty,  claiming  that  the  latter  had  no  effect  on  growth;  Godin  (298, 
301,  302)  in  1902,  1911  and  1912,  published  brief  papers  on  the  adolescent 
type,  based  on  his  1903  study  (299),  with  36,000  measurements  on  the  same 
one  hundred  subjects  followed  from  13  to  18  years  of  age.  In  1902  and 
1907  Wiazemsky  (877  and  878)  published  important  studies  on  modifications 
of  the  organism  during  the  period  of  puberty.  Kimpflin  (436)  1914,  reported 
measurements  of  200  adolescents.  Riebesell  (655)  1916,  proposed  that  weight 
as  a  function  of  time  should  be  used  as  an  index  of  physiological  age. 

B.  PHYSIOLOGICAL  AGE  AND  SCHOOL  PROGRESS 

The  educational  and  sociological  significance  of  the  problem  of 
physiological  age  has  been  championed  by  Bryan  (132)  1900  ;  Crampton 
(181-134)  1908;  Weissenberg  (865)  1911;  Foster  (261)  1910-11;  Boas  (98) 
1912;  Beik  (46)  1913,  and  Baldwin  (27  and  28)  1914  and  1916,  Bean  (42) 
1914,  reported  on  the  relation  between  dentition  and  maturity,  while 
Rotch  (675  and  676)1910,  initiated  the  problem  of  the  graduations  of 
carpal  and  epiphyseal  development.  The  question  of  adolescence  in  its 
psychological,  sociological  and  educational  bearings,  together  with  com- 
parative data  from  various  investigations  on  physical  development,  has 
been  treated  by  Hall  (340)  in  his  Adolescence,  1904. 


10.  PHYSICAL  GROWTH  AND  CENTAL  DEVELOPMENT 

A  most  significant  trend  of  investigations  on  physical  growth,  from 
the  writer's  point  of  view,  lies  in  the  large  number  of  studies  dealing 
with  the  relationship  between  physical  and  mental  development.  Modern 
genetic,  functional  and  behavioristic  psychology  all  begin  with  the  phen- 
omena of  physical  growth.  Warner's  (855)  1890,  very  comprehensive  but 
inaccurate  study,  served  £o  initiate  the  problem  in  England.  Other  studies 
which  contain  material  bearing  on  this  problem,  but  usually  not  analyzed 
to  show  the  exact  relation  between  physical  and  mental  development,  have 
been  made  by  Martiegka  (502)  1898;  Thome  (819)  1904;  Berry  (58)  1904; 
Quirsfeld  (635-637)  1904-1907;  Samosch  (687)  1904;  Eyerbibh  and  Lowenfeld 
(243)  1905;  Popper  (610$  1907;  Arkle  (15)  1908;  Vaney  (833-834)  1906  to 
1909;  and  Albert  and  Arvizu  (3)  1917.  Burk  (136)  1898,  Oppenheim  (563) 
1898,  Hall  (340)  1904,  Thorndike  (817)  1901,  Whipple  (874)  1915,  and 
Kirkpatrick  (440)  1917,  analyzed  and  summarized  the  general  problem  more 
or  less  extensively  without  original  data. 

A.  ABSENCE  OF  CORRELATION 

A  number  of  investigations  have  shown  no  discernible  relationship 
between  mental  and  physical  development.  So,  for  example,  Galton  (287) 
1891,  in  university  tests  found  no  correlation  between  literary  ability 
and  physical  measurements.  Gilbert  (294  and  295)  1895  and  1897,  and 
Cattail  and  Farrand  (163)  1896,  found  no  definite  correlation  between 
physical  and  mental  tests.  Radosavijevich  (639)  1913,  also  could  trace 
but  little  correlation  between  physical  development  and  school  brightness. 
The  work  of  Pearson  (577-579)  1901-02,  and  1906,  and  of  Lee,  Lewenz  and 
Pearson  (469)  1903-04,  showed  very  small  and  unreliable  correlations 
between  intelligence  and  physical  characters. 


-64- 

B.  NEGATIVE  CORRELATIONS 

Only  one  investigator  definitely  states  a  negative  correlation. 
This  is  Sargent  (693)  1908,  who  found  that  the  "stipend  scholarship 
men"  at  Harvard  were  among  the  shortest  and  lightest. 

C.  POSITIVE  CORRELATIONS 

The  most  significant  pioneer  study  showing  positive  correlation 
was  made  by  Porter  (611-618)  1892-93,  1894  and  1896,  who  found  that 
"precocious  children  are  heavier  and  dull  children  are  lighter  than 
the  mean  children  of  the  same  age."   Holmes  (394)  discussed  this  work 
in  1894  and  Boas  (86)  in  1895*  Positive  findings  have  been  confirmed  or 
supplemented  as  follows:  in  Russia  by  Gratsianoff  (313)  1889,  and  Sack 
(681)  1892,  —  in  America  by  Hartwell  (351)  1894-95;  West  (873)  1896; 
Macdonald  (490-492)  1897-98  and  1910;  Hastings  (355)  1899J  Christopher 
(171)  1900;  Smedley  (764)  1900;  Beyer  (65)  1900;  Zirkle  (911)  1902; 
Debusk  (203)  1913;  Mead  (513)  1914;  Grover  (325)  1915;  Donaldson  (215) 
1915;  Stewart  (780)  1916;  Busk  (140)  1917;  Courtis  (179)  1917;  and 
Baldwin  (25,  27  and  30)  1911,  1914  and  1920,  —  in  Germany  by  Schmidt 
and  Lessenich  (725)  903;  Graupner  (314)  1904;  Bayerthal  (40)  1905-1910; 
Reitz  (658)  1906;  and  Spielrein  (768)  1916. 


Pamphlet 

Binder  < 

Gaylord  Bros. 

Makers 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

PAT.  JAN  21,  1908 


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